MECHANICAL  DEVICES 
IN  THE  HOME 

by  ..;;.;'/. 

EDITH  ALLEN,  M.A,  '!.-,          , 
Assistant  Editor,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Formerly 

Specialist  in  Home  Economics  in  Kansas  State  Agricultural 

College,    University  of  Texas,   and  Oklahoma 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 
PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


X 


Copyright  1922 

Edith  Allen 

12C22 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 

IN  WRITING  this  book,  my  aim  has  been  (1)  to  give  in- 
formation which  will  guide  householders  in  selecting  and 
installing  the  best  cooking  and  heating  devices,  and  in 
using  them  with  the  greatest  economy  of  fuel  and  safety 
against  accidents;  (2) 'to  explain  the  construction  of  lighting 
fixtures  and  how  to  determine  the  amount  of  light  for  health 
needed  in  various  places;  (3)  to  explain  the  principles  of  cool- 
ing ;  (4)  to  show  how  to  make  small  repairs  which  save  plumb- 
ers' bills;  (5)  to  guide  in  the  choice  and  care  of  laundry  appli- 
ances and  cooking  utensils;  (6)  to  familiarize  women  with  the 
construction  of  electric,  acetylene  and  gas  plants  and  engines, 
and  (7)  to  furnish  tables  of  measure  often  needed  for  reference. 

There  is  a  lack  of  material  of  this  type  which  is  non-tech- 
nical enough  for  the  use  of  home  economics  students  and 
housewives.  The  material  which  I  have  organized  applies 
directly  to  the  appliances  with  which  women  work  and  is  of 
a  nature  to  fill  their  need  in  this  field. 

The  book  is  designed  as  a  text  for  senior-high  school  and 
junior-college  classes,  as  well  as  for  the  needs  of  home-demon- 
stration agents,  housewives  and  other  women. 

EDITH  ALLEN 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The  author  is  particularly  indebted  in  the  preparation  of 
this  book  to  John  G.  Thompson,  professor  of  economics,  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois;  J.  K.  T.  Ekblaw,  instructor  of  farm  mech- 
anics, University  of  Illinois,  and  editor  of  Farm  Power;  An- 
drey  A.  Potter,  professor  of  steam  and  gas  engineering,  Kan- 
sas State  Agricultural  College;  J.  M.  Bryant,  professor  of 
electrical  engineering,  University  of  Texas;  Harrison  E.  Howe, 
National  Council  of  Research;  Miss  Minna  C.  Denton,  home 
economics  specialist,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture; Miss  Marie  Dallas,  Washington,  D.  C.;F.  F.  Good,  in- 
structor in  applied  physics,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia 
University,  New  York. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  companies  furnishing  illustrations, 
data  and  other  information: 


American  Blower  Company. 
American  Ironing  Machine  Co. 
American  Lava  Co. 
American  Radiator  Co. 
American  Stove  Co. 
Automatic  Electric  Washer  Co. 
Baltimore  Gas  Appliance  Co. 
Bates  &  Edmonds  Motor  Co. 
Bissel's  Carpet  Sweeper  Co. 
Blake  Mfg.  Co. 
C.  Brown  Mfg.  Co. 
B.  Bryan  Co. 

Central  Construction  &  Supply  Co. 
Central  Oil  &  Gas  Stove  Co. 
Chambers  Fireless  Cooker  Stove 

Co. 

Geo.  M.  Clark  &  Co. 
Cleveland  Metal  Products  Co. 
Coleman  Lamp  Co. 


Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light 

and  Power  Co. 
Cyphers  Incubator  Co. 
Dangler  Stove  Co. 
Davis  Acetylene  Co. 
The  DeLaval  Separator  Co. 
Delco  Motor  Co. 
The  Deming  Co. 
Detroit  Heating  &  Lighting  Co. 
Detroit  Stove  Works. 
Detroit  Vapor  Stove  Co. 
A.  B.  Dick  Co. 
W.  S.  Dickey  Clay  Mfg.  Co. 
The  Durham  Mfg.  Co. 
Eagle  Generator  Co. 
Fuller,  Warren  &  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
Hammond  Typewriter  Co. 
Hart  &  Grouse  Co. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Herrick  Refrigerator  Co. 
Huenfield  Co. 
Humphrey  Co. 
Hurley  Machine  Co. 
Kalamazoo  Stove  Co. 
Kewanee  Water  Supply  Co. 
Klau-Van  Pietersom-Dunlap. 
Landers,  Frary,  Clark  &  Co. 
Laundryette  Mfg.  Co. 
Manning,  Bowman  &  Co. 
Mantle  Lamp  Co.  of  America. 
H.  G.  McFadden  &  Co. 
The  Monitor  Stove  Co. 
National  Electric  Supply  Co. 
Northwestern  Steel  &  Iron  Works. 
Pacific  Flush  Tank  Co. 
Potomac  Power  &  Lighting  Co. 
Rathbone,  Sard  &  Co. 
Reliable  Stove  Co. 
Remnert  Mfg.  Co. 
Rhinelander  Refrigerator  Co. 
Ringen  Stove  Co. 
Rochester  Rotary  Washer  Co. 
Rochester  Stamping  Co. 


Sears,  Roebuck  &  Co. 

Sharpies  Separator  Co. 

Singer  Sewing  Machine  Co. 

L.  C.  Smith  &  Bros.  Typewriting 
Company. 

Standard  Oil  Co. 

Edward  L.  Stock. 

Thatcher  Furnace  Co. 

The  Torrington  Co. 

Toledo  Cooker  Co. 

Trenton  Potteries  Co. 

United  Electric  Co. 

United  Pump  &  Power  Co. 

United  States  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

United  States  Radiator  Co. 

Voss  Bros.  Mfg.  Co. 

Walker  Bros.  Co. 

Welsbach  Co. 

Western  Electric  Co. 

White  Frost  Refrigerator  Co. 

White  Mop  and  Wringer  Co. 

Wilcox  &  Gibbs  Sewing  Machine 
Co. 


The  Yale  &  Towne  Mfg.  Co. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I.    COOKING  STOVES 
CHAPTER  I.    WOOD  AND  COAL  STOVES    ....        15 

1.  Air  supply  of  fire.  2.  The  grate.  3.  Drafts  or  dampers.  4. 
Starting  the  fire.  5.  Keeping  a  fire.  6.  Heating  the  oven.  7. 
Ashes.  8.  Ash  chutes. 

CHAPTER  II.    GAS  STOVES 23 

9.  Burners.  10.  Simmerers.  11.  Air  mixer.  12.  Regulating  the 
gas.  13.  Lighting  the  stove.  14.  Cleaning  the  stove.  15.  Acci- 
dents with  gas  stove.  16.  Pilot  light.  17.  Pilot  for  top  burners. 
18.  Gas-stove  lighter.  19.  Amount  of  gas  used.  20.  Cold-process 
gasoline  gas  stoves.  21.  Acetylene  stoves. 

CHAPTER  III.    OIL  STOVES 31 

22.  Purpose  of  oil  stoves.  23.  Mechanical  parts  of  kerosene  stove. 
24.  The  burner.  25.  The  chimney.  26.  Lighting  the  stove.  27. 
Management  of  the  flame.  28.  Adjustment  and  care  of  the  stove. 
29.  When  the  stoves  gives  trouble.  30.  Construction  of  gasoline 
stoves.  31.  To  light  the  stove.  32.  Filling  the  gasoline  stove. 
33,  When  a  burner  blazes  and  cannot  be  controlled.  34.  Changing 
fuel  in  vapor  stoves.  35.  Operation  of  vapor  stoves. 

CHAPTER  IV.    ELECTRIC  STOVES 42 

36.  Heating  unit  of  electric  stove.  37.  Wiring  of  stoves.  38. 
Operation  of  electric  stoves.  39.  Care  of  electric  stoves.  40. 
Utensils  for  electric  stoves.  41.  Detachable  cooking  devices. 

CHAPTER  V.  ALCOHOL,  ACETYLENE,  AND  CANNED  HEAT  47 

42.  Alcohol  stoves.  43.  Vapor  stoves.  44.  Wickless  stoves.  45. 
Canned  heat.  46.  Acetylene  gas  stoves. 

CHAPTER  VI.    FIRELESS  AND  STEAM  COOKERS    .      .       50 

47.  The  fireless  cooker.     48.  The  stones  of  fireless  cookers.     49. 


8  CONTENTS 

Heating  the  stones.  50.  Care  of  the  cooker.  51.  Other  devices 
belonging  to  cookers.  52.  Directions  for  using  the  cooker.  53. 
Time  of  cooking  food.  54.  Gas  cookers.  55.  Steam  cookers. 

PART  II.    HEATING  DEVICES 
CHAPTER  VII.    WARM-AIR  FURNACES    ....       57 

56.  Principle  upon  which  a  furnace  works.  57.  The  stove  part. 
58.  The  cold-air  shaft.  59.  Hot-air  pipes.  60.  Location  of  the 
furnace.  61.  Air.  62.  Pipeless  furnaces. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    HOT- WATER  SYSTEM  OF  HEATING    .       64 

63.  Equipment  for  hot-water  heat.  64.  Heating  unit.  65.  The 
management  of  the  fire.  66.  The  pipes.  67.  Expansion  tank. 
68.  Water.  69.  Radiators. 

CHAPTER  IX.    STEAM-HEATING  SYSTEMS      ...       69 

70.  Equipment  for  steam  heat.  71.  Steam  gages.  72.  Safety 
valve. 

CHAPTER  X.    FIREPLACES  AND  HEATING  STOVES      .       74 

73.  Construction  of  fireplace.  74.  Management  of  fireplace. 
75.  Operating  heating  stoves.  76.  Care  of  the  stove. 

CHAPTER  XI.    GAS,  ELECTRIC  AND  KEROSENE  HEATERS   77 

77.  Kinds  of  gas  heaters.  78.  Bunsen  burner  and  asbestos-back 
heater.  79.  Lighting  gas  stoves.  80.  Care  of  gas  stoves.  81.  Il- 
luminating flame  and  bright  metal  reflector  heaters.  82.  Gas  ra- 
diator heaters.  83.  Management  of  gas  radiator.  84.  Kerosene 
heaters.  85.  Electric  heaters.  86.  Acetylene  heaters. 

PART  III.    LIGHTING  DEVICES 
CHAPTER  XII.    ELECTRIC  LIGHTS 82 

87.  Kinds  of  electric  lamps  in  use.  88.  Electrical  measurements. 
89.  Carbon  lamps.  90.  Mazda  or  tungsten  lamps.  91.  Selecting 
lamps  for  a  room.  92.  Effect  of  color  schemes  upon  illumination. 
93.  Distribution  of  light. 


CONTENTS  9 

CHAPTER  XIII.    GAS  LIGHT 88 

94.  Construction  of  mantles.  95.  Care  of  mantles.  96.  Fixtures 
for  burning  gas.  97.  Adjustment.  98.  Care  of  lamps.  99.  Light- 
ing a  gas  light.  100.  Cold-process  gasoline  gas.  101.  Acetylene 
lamps.  102.  Care  of  burners  of  acetylene  lamps. 

CHAPTER  XIV.    KEROSENE  LAMPS 93 

103.  Construction  of  kerosene  lamps.  104.  Management  of  kero- 
sene lamps.  105.  Lighting  a  kerosene  lamp.  106.  To  extinguish 
a  lamp.  107.  Care  of  lamps.  108.  Kerosene  mantle  lamps. 

CHAPTER  XV.    ALCOHOL  AND  GASOLINE  LAMPS        .       96 

109.  Classification  of  lamps.  110.  Gravity  lamps.  111.  Light- 
ing the  gravity  lamp.  112.  Pressure  lamps.  113.  Gasoline  lamps 
with  wicks.  114.  Alcohol  lamps  with  wicks.  115.  Lighting  alco- 
hol or  gasoline  lamps. 

PART  IV.    COOLING  DEVICES 
CHAPTER  XVI.    REFRIGERATORS 100 

116.  Principles  of  refrigeration.  117.  The  construction  of  refrig- 
erators. 118.  Lining  refrigerators.  119.  Insulation  of  refrig- 
erators. 120.  Circulation  in  refrigerators.  121.  Drip  from  melt- 
ing ice.  122.  Arrangement  of  food  in  the  ice  box.  123.  Filling  and 
care  of  the  ice  box. 

CHAPTER  XVII.    ICELESS  REFRIGERATORS;  WATER 

COOLERS       .        .        .       ...        .        105 

124.  Comparative  efficiency  of  iceless  refrigerators.  125.  Iceless 
refrigerator.  126.  Small  cooler.  127.  Covered  pail.  128.  Un- 
glazed  earthenware.  129.  Cooling  with  running  water.  130.  Refrig- 
erating plants.  131.  Water  coolers.  132.  Care  of  water  coolers. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    FANS  AND  VENTILATORS       .       .      110 

133.  Selecting  a  fan.  134.  The  construction  of  the  fan  in  common 
use.  135.  Ventilator. 


10  CONTENTS 

PART  V.  WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 
CHAPTER  XIX.    PUMPS  AND  WATER  FILTERS     .      .      112 

136.  Suction  pumps.  137.  Care  of  pumps.  138.  Force  pumps. 
139.  Compressed-air  pumps.  140.  Water  filters. 

CHAPTER  XX.  PRESSURE  TANKS;  PLUMBING  FIXTURES  117 

141.  Pressure  tanks.  142.  Construction  of  the  pressure  tank. 
143.  Care  of  pressure  tanks.  144.  Hot-water  kitchen  tank. 
145.  Instantaneous  water  heaters.  146.  Heaters  for  tanks.  147. 
The  elevated  water  tank.  148.  Faucets.  149.  Valves.  150.  Over- 
flows. 151.  Traps  for  bath  tubs  and  basins. 

CHAPTER  XXI.     CESSPOOLS,  SEPTIC  TANKS  AND  CITY 

SEWER  SYSTEMS 124 

152.  Releative  value  of  cesspool  and  septic  tank.  153.  Construc- 
tion of  the  septic  tank.  154.  The  size  of  tank.  155.  Disposal  of 
waste  in  cities. 

CHAPTER  XXII.    WATER  CLOSETS 128 

156.  Construction  of  water  closets.  157.  Siphoning  the  trap.  158. 
The  flushing  tank.  159.  Repairing  the  flushing  tank. 

PART  VI.    LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 
CHAPTER  XXIII.    WASHING  MACHINES      ...      132 

160.  Kinds  of  washing  machines.  161.  Suction  machines.  162. 
Cylinder  washers.  163.  Rotary  washers.  164.  Machine  with 
an  oscillating  washing  device.  165.  Oscillating  washers.  166. 
Locomotive  washer.  167.  Centrifugal  washer.  168.  Care  of 
washers. 

CHAPTER  XXIV.    WRINGERS .138 

169.  Roller  wringer.  170.  Care  of  wringers.  171.  Centrifugal 
wringer  or  drier.  172.  Care  of  the  machine.  173.  Combination 
washer  and  wringer. 


CONTENTS  11 

CHAPTER  XXV.    MANGLES  AND  IRONS      .       .       .      141 

174.  Construction  of  mangles.  175.  Cold  mangles.  176.  Heated 
mangles.  177.  Care  and  use  of  mangles.  178.  Flat,  or  sadirons. 
179.  Charcoal  irons.  180.  Electric  irons.  181.  Gas  irons.  182. 
Acetylene  irons.  183.  Alcohol  irons.  184.  Gasoline  irons. 

PART  VII.    HOUSE-CLEANING  EQUIPMENT 

CHAPTER  XXVI.    VACUUM  CLEANERS  AND  CLEANING 

TOOLS 147 

185.  Principle  upon  which  vacuum  cleaners  work.  186.  Different 
kinds  of  vacuum  cleaners.  187.  Nozzle  of  vacuum  cleaner.  188. 
Cautions  in  using  vacuum  cleaners.  189.  Difference  between  hand 
and  power  cleaners.  190.  Carpet  sweeper.  191.  Mop  wringers. 

PART  VIII.    DEVICES  FOR  PREPARATION  AND 
CONSERVATION  OF  FOOD 

CHAPTER  XXVII.    POTS,  PANS  AND  OTHER  DEVICES      155 

192.  Materials  from  which  utensils  are  made.  193.  Aluminum 
alloy.  194.  Cast-iron  utensils.  195.  Earthenware.  196.  Aluminum 
and  graniteware.  197.  Mixing  spoons. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.    PARERS,  SEEDERS,   GRINDERS, 

SLICERS,  ETC. 159 

198.  Fruit  and  vegetable  parers  and  knives.  199.  Parers  which 
grate  off  skins.  200.  Seeders  and  stoners.  201.  Cherry  stoner. 
202.  Grinders.  203.  Choppers  or  meat  grinders.  204.  Choppers. 
205.  Slicers.  206.  Lard  and  fruit  presses,  sausage  stuffers. 

CHAPTER  XXIX.    MIXERS,  BEATERS  AND  CHURNS; 

COFFEE  POTS       ....        .        .        165 

207.  Use  of  mixers,  beaters  and  churns.  208.  Care  of  these  de- 
vices. 209.  Freezers.  210.  Care  of  freezers.  211.  Churns.  212. 
Drip  coffee  pots.  213.  Percolator  coffee  pots. 


12  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXX.     DISH-WASHERS,   CANNERS  AND 

DRYERS .        170 

214.  Dish  dryer.  215.  Cleaning  silver.  216.  Canners.  217. 
Water  seal.  218.  Pressure  canners.  219.  Use  of  the  canner. 
220.  Dryers.  221.  Care  of  dryers. 

CHAPTER  XXXI.    SEPARATORS  AND  EMULSIFIERS    ~.     178 

222.  Cream  separators.  223.  Different  types  of  separators.  224. 
Washing  the  machine.  225.  Oiling.  226.  Whey  separator.  227. 
Emulsifier. 

PART  IX.    SUNDRY  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  XXXII.    DUMBWAITERS  AND  OTHER  HOUSE 

FURNISHINGS       .  183 

228.  Dumbwaiters  and  window  adjustments.  229.  Check  valves. 
230.  Door  fastener.  231.  Window  shades.  232.  Hinges.  233. 
Sliding  doors. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII.    SEWING  MACHINES       ...      186 

234.  Different  types  of  sewing  machines.  235.  Lock-stitch  sewing 
machine.  236.  Feed  plate.  237.  Bobbins.  238.  Shuttle  bob- 
bins. 239.  Chain-stitch  machine.  240.  Cautions  for  all  ma- 
chines. 241.  General  instructions. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.    AUTOMOBILES 192 

242.  Starting  the  motor.  243.  Driving  the  automobile.  244. 
Care  of  car. 

CHAPTER  XXXV.    LAWN  MOWERS;  INCUBATORS      .      195 

245.  Operation  and  care  of  lawn  mowers.  246.  Storing  mowers. 
247.  Scissors  and  shears.  248.  Principles  upon  which  incubator 
works.  249.  The.  body  of  the  incubator.  250.  Incubators  heated 
by  a  lamp.  251.  The  wick.  252.  Thermostat.  253.  The  ther- 
mometer. 254.  Operation  of  incubator.  255.  Egg  tester. 


CONTENTS  13 

CHAPTER  XXXVI.    TYPEWRITERS         ....      202 

256.  Construction  of  typewriter.  257.  Special  features  of  type- 
writer. 258.  Interchangeable-type  typewriters.  259.  Care  of 
typewriters.  260.  The  hectograph.  261.  Mimeograph  and 
multigraph. 

PART  X.    MOTORS,  FUELS  AND  GAS  PLANTS 
CHAPTER  XXXVII.    TREADLES  AND  WATER  MOTORS     209 

262.  Definition  of  motor.  263.  The  treadle.  264.  Water  mo- 
tors. 265.  Selecting  a  water  motor.  266.  Two  types  of  water 
motors. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII.    ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BAT- 
TERIES; FUELS 212 

267.  Gasoline  engines.  268.  Figuring  speed  of  pulleys.  269. 
Operating  the  engine.  270.  Points  in  caring  for  engine.  271. 
Generating  electricity  for  homes.  272.  Batteries.  273.  Liquid 
batteries.  274.  A  dry-cell  battery.  275.  Storage  batteries.  276. 
Some  uses  for  electric  motors.  277.  Definition  tables. 

CHAPTER  XXXIX.    GAS  PLANTS     .      .      .      .      .      220 

278.  Gasoline  gas  plants.  279.  Acetylene-gas  plant.  280.  Direc- 
tions for  operating  acetylene  plant.  281.  Cautions  to  be  observed 
in  using  acetylene  gas.  282.  Compressed  gases  and  oils. 

PART  XI.    MEASURING  DEVICES 
CHAPTER  XL.    SCALES  FOR  WEIGHING    ....      225 

283.  Equal-arm  balances.  284.  Unequal-arm  balances.  285.  Spring 
scales. 

CHAPTER  XLI.    DEVICES  FOR  MEASURING  VOLUME  .      227 

286.  Graduate  and  measuring  cup.  287.  Tablespoons.  288.  Tea- 
spoons. 289.  Standard  measuring  spoons.  290.  Liquid  and  cook- 
ing measures.  291.  Dry  measures.  292.  Cubic,  square  and  linear 
measures. 


14  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XLII.    GAS,  WATER  AND  ELECTRIC  METERS    230 

293.  Different  kinds  of  meters.  294.  Construction  of  a  gas  meter. 
295.  Reading  the  gas  meter.  296.  Water  meters.  297.  Prepay- 
ment meters.  298.  The  electric  meter. 

CHAPTER  XLIII.    THERMOMETERS  AND  THERMOSTATS     233 

299.  Mercury  thermometers.  300.  Oven  thermometer.  301.  Max- 
imum thermometers.  302.  Thermostats. 

CHAPTER  XLIV.    HYDROMETERS  AND  BAROMETERS  .      237 

303.  Hydrometer.  304.  Hygroscopes.  305.  Barometers. 


PARTI 

COOKING  STOVES 

CHAPTER  I 
WOOD  AND  COAL  STOVES 

A  brief  explanation  of  stoves  is  given  in  this  chapter  to  help 
the  woman  with  a  new  stove  or  with  an  old  one  which  she  does 
not  understand  so  that  she  may  manage  it  without  wasting 
fuel  and  nervous  energy. 


FIG.  1.   Cross-section  of  cooking  stove. 

Cooking  stoves  (Fig.  1)  were  invented  as  a  convenient 
means  for  holding  pots  and  pans  in  close  proximity  to  the  fire. 
They  include  a  device  for  regulating  the  supply  of  air  to  the 
burning  fuel. 

2 — Nov.   22. 


16  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

3^  :  Air  .Supply  for  Tire .  A  proper  amount  of  air  must  be 
supplied  to  the  fuel  to  produce  a  hot  fire.  A  smoky  or  yellow 
flame  indicates  a  lack  of  sufficient  air  to  produce  complete 
combustion  of  the  fuel.  Smoke  is  unburnt  fuel.  A  smoky 
fire  does  not  produce  as  much  heat  as  one  which  burns  with  a 
blue  or  almost  colorless  flame.  It  is  usually  not  the  fault  of 
the  fuel,  but  the  way  it  is  being  used  that  causes  a  smoky  fire. 

2.  The  Grate.    Cooking  stoves  may  be  constructed  for 
burning  either  wood  or  coal.     In  both  cases,  the  operation  is 

similar,  except  that  more  air  should  be 
passing  thru  the  stove  while  wood  is 
being  burnt.  For  burning  coal,  the 
grate  should  be  less  open  in  order  to 
prevent  the  coal  from  falling  thru. 

Some  modern  stoves  are  made   with 
FIG.  1-a.   Grate.       double  grateg>     Thege  may  be  tumed 

so  that  the  more  open  part  of  them  is  used  for  supporting 
the  wood,  and  the  less  open  part  for  coal. 

These  grates  are  usually  reversed  by  a  stove  shaker.  (Fig. 
1-a  shows  a  detailed  drawing  of  a  grate.)  The  housekeeper 
must  understand  how  this  is  done  in  order  to  avoid  reversing 
them  when  she  shakes  down  the  ashes.  Two  difficulties  arise 
in  reversing  the  grate  when  the  stove  is  filled  with  fuel.  The 
coal  may  be  wasted  by  falling  thru  the  part  intended  for 
wood,  or  pieces  of  fuel  may  fall  between  the  parts  so  that  they 
cannot  be  moved.  When  this  happens,  it  is  best  to  let  the 
fire  go  out,  take  out  the  fuel,  adjust  the  grates  as  they  should 
be  and  rebuild  the  fire. 

3.  Drafts  or  Dampers.    There  are  from  three  to  six 
dampers  on  a  stove  (Figs.  1  and  2),  as  follows: 


WOOD  AND  COAL  STOVES 


17 


1)  The  draft  below  the  fire  box,  found  on  all  stoves,  is  to  let 
in  air  to  the  burning  fire. 

2)  The  draft  above  the  fire  box,  not  found  on  all  stoves, 
when  slightly  opened,  lets  in  air  which  completes  the  com- 
bustion of  the  gases  arising  from  the  top  of  the  fire.    When 
opened  too  wide,  it  checks  the  burning  of  the  fire. 

3)  The  oven  damper,  found  on  all 
cook  stoves,  is  placed  at  the  point 
where  the  flame  naturally  enters 
the  stove  pipe.    When  this  damper 
is  closed,  the  flame  must  go  around 
the  oven  instead  of  directly  up  the 
chimney. 

To  see  the  oven  damper,  take  off 
the  lid  nearest  the  stove  pipe  and 
watch  .the  direction  of  the  flame. 
The  handle  to  the  oven  damper  may 
be  at  the  side  of  the  pipe  on  top  of 
the  stove  or  at  the  front  of  the  stove  under  the  top  near  the 
reservoir.  Closing  this  damper  causes  the  hot  gases  from 
the  fire  to  go  back  over  the  top  of  the  stove  down  behind 
the  oven,  turn  under  the  oven  and  come  up  the  chimney. 
Good  stoves  are  constructed  so  that  the  hot  gases  come  in 
contact  with  every  part  of  the  oven.  This  makes  a  longer 
journey  for  the  gases,  but,  if  the  drafts  in  the  front  of  the 
stove  and  chimney  are  properly  adjusted,  the  gases  will 
make  the  circuit  without  forming  soot. 

4)  A  damper  in  the  stove  pipe  (Fig.  2)  for  letting  air  from 
the  room  into  the  pipe  serves  to  check  the  burning  of  the  fire 
by  taking  the  place  of  the  draft  thru  the  stove. 


FIG.  2.   Drafts  and  damp- 
ers in  stove-pipe. 


18  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

5)  A  damper,  or  shutter,  found  in  the  pipe  or  chimney  of 
most  stoves,  when  closed,  checks  the  draft  up  the  chimney, 
and,  when  open,  lets  it  pass  freely. 

6)  The  reservoir  damper,  found  on  some  stoves  having 
reservoirs,  lets  the  hot  gases  pass  next  to  the  reservoir  when 
open  and  prevents  this  when  closed. 

4.  Starting  the  Fire.    If  the  stove  has  a  reversible 
grate,  see  that  it  is  adjusted  to  suit  the  fuel  before  building 
the  fire;  then  adjust  the  drafts.    Open  the  draft  below  the 
fire  box,  the  oven  damper,  and  the  shutter  in  the  chimney; 
close  the  draft  above  the  fire  box,  and  the  draft  which  lets  air 
from  the  room  into  the  pipe,  so  that  the  air  may  pass  up  thru 
the  fire  box  and  directly  up  the  chimney.    Some  chimneys 
produce  such  strong  drafts  that  the  shutter  in  the  chimney 
has  to  be  kept  closed  most  of  the  time,  even  when  starting  the 
fire.    After  the  fuel  has  become  ignited,  the  draft  below  the 
fire  may  be  partly  closed  so  that  it  burns  less  rapidly.    If  the 
fire  is  to  be  used  for  heating  water  or  food  on  top  of  the  stove, 
it  is  now  ready  for  use.    If  it  is  still  burning  too  rapidly,  the 
draft  may  be  entirely  closed,  or  the  shutter  in  the  chimney 
partly  closed.     If  at  any  time  the  stove  smokes,  the  shutter 
or  drafts  above  the  fire  may  be  closed  too  much  and  should  be 
opened  enough  to  let  all  the  smoke  pass.    Adding  too  much 
fuel  at  one  time  and  not  spreading  it  in  a  thin  layer  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  fire  may  cause  the  stove  to  smoke. 

5.  Keeping  a  Fire.     If,  after  a  fire  has  been  used,  it  is 
wanted  for  use  later,  close  the  draft  below  the  fire  box,  open 
the  one  above  the  fire  box,  or,  if  there  chances  to  be  no  draft 
here,  tilt  the  lids  on  the  stove  to  let  in  the  air;  close  the  shut- 
ter in  the  chimney  and  open  the  draft  in  the  pipe  that  lets  in 


WOOD  AND  COAL  STOVES  19 

air  from  the  room.  With  the  drafts  so  adjusted,  the  fire 
should  keep  a  long  time,  as  it  will  burn  very  slowly. 

6.  Heating  the  Oven.  When  baking  is  to  be  done,  wait 
until  the  fire  is  well  started ;  then  close  the  oven  damper.  The 
eveness  of  heat  in  the  oven  depends  upon  the  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  hot  gases  below  and  on  the  sides  of  it.  This  is  pro- 
vided for  in  the  manufacture  of  the  stove  itself.  The  heat  in 
the  oven  may  be  regulated  by  the  intensity  of  the  heat  from 
the  fire  as  well  as  by  the  damper.  Whenever  a  cooler  oven  is 
wanted,  the  flame  may  be  permitted  to  go  directly  up  the 
chimney.  Since  hot  air  is  always  seeking  a  higher  level  than 
cold  air,  opening  the  oven  door  cools  the  oven,  but  it  will  not 
prevent  food  set  on  the  bottom  of  the  oven  from  burning  on 
the  bottom.  In  a  closed  oven,  the  greatest  degree  of  heat  is 
at  the  top,  excepting  sometimes  the  surface  of  the  bottom  of 
the  oven.  Many  stoves  require  the  placing  of  a  thin  grating 
on  the  bottom  of  the  oven  to  prevent  food  from  burning  on 
the  bottom.  If  food  does  not  brown  sufficiently  on  the  bot- 
tom, remove  the  grating  so  that  the  dish  comes  in  closer  con- 
tact with  the  heating  unit. 

The  insulation  of  the  oven  door  helps  to  hold  heat  in  the 
oven,  but  the  amount  lost  here  is  so  small  that  many  house- 
keepers prefer  the  convenience  of  the  glass  door,  which,  in 
turn,  saves  heat  by  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  opening 
the  oven  door  to  watch  the  cooking  food. 

Some  housewives  adjust  the  dampers  for  heating  the  oven 
and  then  never  change  them.  They  heat  the  kitchen  in  sum- 
mer more  than  is  necessary  and  use  more  fuel  than  they  need 
for  cooking.  It  has  been  estimated  that  where  the  careful 
manager  of  a  stove  uses  one  pound  of  fuel,  the  careless  man- 
ager uses  three  and  a  half  pounds. 


20  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

One  experiment  station  estimated  that  the  household  coal 
range  is  used  on  an  average  of  six  hours  a  day,  and,  if  used 
carefully,  seven  pounds  of  coal  is  consumed.  Careless  man- 
agement, then,  makes  the  waste  of  coal  quite  an  item  in  the 
course  of  a  year,  as  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  careless  manager 
to  use  twenty-four  pounds  of  coal  per  six-hour  day. 

There  is  always  some  soot  formed,  even  in  the  best-man- 
aged stoves,  and  the  flame  often  carries  ashes  with  it.  These 
in  time  fill  the  narrow  space  about  the  oven  and  cut  off  or 
check  the  passage  of  the  hot  gases  about  the  oven.  When 
this  happens  and  the  oven  damper  is  closed,  the  stove  will 
smoke  and  not  bake  well.  No  stove  should  be  allowed  to  get 
in  this  condition.  The  housewife  can  watch  the  accumula- 
tion of  ashes  in  the  stove  and  remove  them  before  they  be- 
come one-fourth  inch  thick.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  oven  will 
not  heat  well  and  some  parts  may  be  considerably  cooler  than 
others. 

7.  Ashes.  Ashes  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  fire  box 
will  cause  the  lining  of  the  stove  to  burn  out.  Ashes  will  also 
interfere  with  the  heating  of  the  rest  of  the  stove.  To 
lengthen  the  life  of  a  stove,  keep  the  ash  pan  empty.  If  a  full 
pan  of  ashes  becomes  hot,  it  will  keep  the  grate  of  the  stove  so 
hot  that  it  will  warp  and  burn  out,  and  sometimes  cause 
the  oven  to  warp. 

If  a  housewife  tries  to  build  a  fresh  fire  in  a  stove  with  a  full 
ash  pan,  she  will  have  to  wait  for  the  ashes  to  become  heated 
thru  before  she  can  get  satisfactory  use  of  the  oven.  She  will 
be  unable  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  oven  if  it  be- 
comes too  hot.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  fuel  to  heat  a  large  pan 
full  of  ashes. 


WOOD  AND  COAL  STOVES 

rv 


21 


A-  UN  INS  of 
FUEL.  BOX 


FIG.  3.   Ash  chute. 


22  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

8.  Ash  Chutes.  In  some  modern  houses,  there  are  ash 
chutes  which  carry  the  ashes  directly  from  the  kitchen  stove 
to  a  receptacle  in  the  basement  (Fig.  3).  These  have  to  be 
installed  with  care.  If  there  is  a  draft  of  air  which  cannot-be 
regulated  from  the  basement  up  thru  the  fire  box,  the  fire  will 
burn  too  fast.  There  should  be  a  damper  to  regulate  drafts 
here.  An  ash  chute  saves  much  dirt  in  the  kitchen. 


CHAPTER  II 
GAS  STOVES 

The  gas  stove  is  the  simplest  stove  made.  It  consists  of  a 
burner  or  burners  of  different  shapes  mounted  on  a  suitable 
frame.  The  best  example  of  a  gas  burner  is  a  pipe  with  holes 
punched  in  it,  where  the  gas  flows  out  and  is  set  on  fire.  This 
pipe  may  be  coiled  into  a  circle  and  make  a  round  burner,  or 
the  holes  may  all  come  at  the  end,  which  is  arranged  to  spread 
the  gas  into  a  disc  shape. 

9.  Burners.     Stoves  are  usually  made  with  different 
sizes  of  burners.     One  manufacturer  states  that  the  gas 
stoves  made  by  his  firm  consume  per  top  burner  per  hour 
fourteen  to  eighteen  feet  of  gas,  and  the  oven  burners  con- 
sume eighteen  to  twenty  feet  when  the  gas  is  turned  on  full. 
Simmerers  consume  much  less  than  this. 

10.  Simmerers.     Every  gas  range  should  have  a  sim- 
merer  on  it.     This  is  a  small  burner,  usually  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.    After  a  large  kettle  full  of  food  has  been  heated  to 
boiling,  this  burner  may  keep  it  simmering  for  hours,  using 
very  little  gas.     This  burner  will  keep  small  kettles  of  food 
boiling. 

11.  Air  Mixer.     Gas  escaping  from  any  pipe  will  burn, 
but  it  will  burn  with  a  yellow  flame.    To  make  gas  burn  with 
a  blue  flame — that  is,  to  secure  complete  combustion— air 
must  be  mixed  with  it.    This  is  done  in  the  air  mixer  (Fig.  4). 
The  blue  flame  is  desirable  for  cooking  because  it  is  hotter 
than  the  yellow  flame  and  does  not  blacken  the  cooking  uten- 
sils. 


24 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


Gas  passes  thru  the  air  mixer  before  entering  the  burner. 
Sometimes  the  air  inlet  is  only  a  hole  put  in  the  under  side  of 
the  pipe.  The  opening  for  entrance  of  air  is  shielded  so  that 
the  gas  will  not  escape  from  the  mixer,  but  will  go  on  into  the 
burner.  A  gas  pipe  looks  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  but 
the  stream  of  gas  which  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the  burner  is 
very  small,  in  some  cases  being  about 
the  diameter  of  a  darning  needle. 
The  opening  for  air  is  so  large,  that 
a  person's  finger  may  be  put  into  it. 
Too  much  air  interferes  with  the 
burning  of  the  gas;  in  fact,  there  can 
be  so  much  air  mixed  with  gas  that  it 
will  not  burn.  The  air  mixer  regu- 
lates the  amount  of  air  which  flows 
into  the  pipe.  Once  this  is  adjusted 
for  the  kind  of  gas  to  be  used,  it  sel- 
dom needs  to  be  changed.  The  air 
shutter  has  to  be  changed,  however, 
if  the  gas  pressure  varies  markedly  from  time  to  time.  Re- 
adjustment may  be  required  if  the  stove  is  moved  and  con- 
nected with  a  different  supply  of  gas.  When  adjusting  the 
mixer  for  high  pressure,  artificial  or  natural  gas,  close  the 
shutter  until  the  flame  will  not  blow  away  from  the  cone,  but 
will  burn  with  a  blue,  almost  colorless,  flame. 

12.  Regulating  the  Gas.  The  amount  of  gas  which 
passes  into  the  stove  is  also  regulated,  first,  by  adjustment  of 
the  size  of  the  small  opening  thru  which  the  gas  must  flow. 
Once  this  is  adjusted,  it  does  not  need  to  be  changed  so  long  as 
the  gas  comes  from  the  same  source.  Second,  the  flow  of  gas 


FIG.  4.  Part  of  gas  stove 
showing  air  mixers. 


GAS  STOVES  25 

is  regulated  by  the  lever  valve.  As  the  valve  is  turned,  the 
flow  of  gas  is  restricted  so  that  it  flows  less  swiftly.  The  size 
of  the  stream  of  gas  going  into  the  stove  always  looks  the  same 
regardless  of  its  speed.  When  the  rate  is  not  so  fast,  the  fire 
burns  lower  because  less  gas  comes  to  it  during  every  unit  of 
time. 

13.  Lighting  the  Stove.     Light  the  top  burners  by  first 
striking  a  match,  and  then  turning  on  the  burner  so  that 
there  will  be  an  unrestricted 

flow  of  gas.     Count  three  be- 
fore applying  the  match.    This 
gives  time  for  the  burner  to  fill 
with  gas.     If  the  match  goes 
out,  shut  off  the  gas  and  try 
again.     If  it  burns  back  into 
the  air  hole,  also  turn  off  the 
gas  and  begin  again.    Proba- 
bly the  match  was  applied  too        FlG'  5'  Cleaning  gas  stove' 
soon.     Gas  stoves  get  out  of  order  because  of  carelessness 
in  lighting  them.     The  force  of  the  explosions  caused  in 
burning  back  loosens  connections  and  may  disturb  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  mixer  and  valve. 

14.  Cleaning  the  Stove.     Housekeepers  should  keep 
their  gas  stoves  clean.     Dirt  interferes  with  the  passage  of  the 
gas  thru  the  burners.     Gas  stoves  should  be  cleaned  thoroly 
once  a  month.    Scrub  the  burners  with  a  stiff  brush  (Fig.  5), 
and  wash  all  greasy  parts  with  soap  and  water.     If  the  holes 
should  be  clogged,  remove  the  stoppage  with  a  wire  hair-pin 
(Fig.  6).     Clean  the  drip  sheet  every  day,  or  as  often  as  it  be- 
comes soiled.     (Fig.  4.) 


26  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

15.  Accidents  with  Gas  Stove.    Accidents  with  gas 
stoves  are  the  result  of  mismanagement.     The  odor  of  gas  in  a 
room  indicates  a  leak  in  the  gas  fixtures,  such  as  stoves  or 
pipes.     When  such  an  odor  is  noticed,  open  windows  and  ex- 
tinguish all  fires  in  the  room  or  building.    Next  search  for  the 
leak.     It  may  be  due  to  an  open  valve.     See  that  these  are  all 
shut  tight.     If  no  valves  are  open,  send  for  a  plumber  who 
looks  after  gas  fixtures.     Leave  the  windows  open  and  do  not 

carry  lighted  matches  or 
lamps  into  the  room  until 
the  leak  has  been  stopped. 
Many  accidents  happen 
at  the  time  the  oven  is 
being  lighted.  Sometimes 
gas  escapes  into  a  closed 
oven,  so  that  its  odor  is 
not  noticed  in  the  kitchen. 

This  gas  catches  fire  or  ex- 
FIG.  6.    Cleaning  burner  of  gas  stove.    p]odes    when    the    oyen 

burner  is  lighted,  blowing  the  oven  door  open  or  off  the 
hinges,  flashing  out  of  the  oven,  and  burning  any  person  near 
the  stove.  To  avoid  such  accidents,  always  open  the  oven 
and  broiler  doors  a  few  minutes  before  lighting  the  oven. 
Fig.  7  shows  construction  of  gas-stove  oven.  If  any  odor 
of  gas  is  noticed  on  opening  the  doors,  fan  this  out.  Leave 
the  oven  and  broiler  doors  open  a  while  after  extinguishing 
the  fire  and  removing  the  cooked  food.  Gas  may  get  into 
the  oven  at  the  time  the  flame  is  extinguished. 

16.  Pilot  Light.     Most  stoves  are  constructed  so  that 
there  is  a  pilot  light  for  the  oven.    Always  use  it  when  light- 


GAS  STOVES 


27 


ing  the  oven.     It  is  put  there  for  the  safety  of  those  using  the 

stove.     There  is  no  need  for  alarm  when  a  pilot  burns  back, 

no  matter  how  much  noise  it  makes,  since  so  little  gas  flows 

thru  the  opening.     One  of 

the  functions   of   a   pilot 

light  is  to  prevent  people 

from  being  burnt  in  case  of 

an  explosion  in  the  oven. 

For  this  reason,  they 

should  be  at  the  side  of 

the  stove. 

If  the  pilot  burns  back, 

close  it;  wait  a  minute,  and 

then  try  lighting  it  again. 

The  regular  burners  of  the 

stove  should  not  burn  back 

if  properly  lighted  by  the 

pilot.     Be  careful  to  see  that  every  part  of  the  oven  burner 

becomes  lighted.  Turn 
the  burners  on  full 
while  lighting  them. 
After  they  are  once 
lighted,  turn  them  as 
FIG.  8.  Pilot  light  for  gas  stove.  low  as  desired. 

17.  Pilot  for  Top  Burners.  A  pilot  made  for  top  burn- 
ers (Fig.  8)  burns  continuously  with  a  very  tiny  flame.  Its 
purpose  is  to  save  gas,  patience,  dirt  and  matches.  The 
saving  comes  because  the  housekeeper  can  so  easily  re-light 
the  burners  that  she  will  turn  them  out  whenever  she  is  not 
needing  the  fire.  Sometimes  when  the  gas  pressure  is  low, 


FIG.  7.  Gas  ovens. 


28 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


the  pilot  light  will  go  out.  It  can  be  re-lighted  by  pressing 
the  valve  as  for  lighting  the  burners  and  touching  a  match  to 
it.  If  the  pilot  goes  out,  the  odor  of  gas  will  be  noticed  in  the 
kitchen  until  it  is  re-lighted. 

18.     Gas -Stove  Lighter.     There  are  two  kinds  of  gas- 
stove  lighters.     These  differ  from  the  pilot  in  that  they  do 

not  burn  constantly.  One 
of  these  is  so  constructed 
that  it  is  first  necessary  to 
apply  a  match  to  any  one  of 
the  top  burners.  The  other 
burners  can  then  be  lighted 
by  opening  the  valve  in  the 
regular  manner  and  press- 
ing down  on  the  lighter 


FIG.  9.    Top  view  of  gas  stove, 
showing  lighter. 


knob.  As  soon  as  pressure  on  the  lighter  knob  is  removed, 
the  gas  supply  to  the  lighter  is  automatically  cut  off 
(Fig.  9).  The  other  lighter  is  made  of  metal  which  gives 
sparks  easily  when  subjected  to  friction.  The  lighter  is  held 
over  the  stove,  the  gas  turned  on  and  the  friction  produced 
by  rubbing  one  part  of  the  lighter  across  the  other,  making  a 
spark  which  ignites  the  gas. 

19.  Amount  of  Gas  Used.  It  is  claimed  that  1,000  feet 
of  illuminating  gas  produce  as  much  heat  as  50  or  60  pounds 
of  anthracite  coal  or  4-1/2  gallons  of  kerosene  oil.  (See  table 
on  page  219.) 

The  difference  in  gas  bills,  due  to  management  of  gas  stoves, 
is  considerable.  It  is  very  easy  for  one  woman  to  use  three 
times  as  much  gas  as  another  in  doing  the  same  amount  of 


GAS  STOVES  29 

work.     Some  women  do  not  realize  when  they  are  wasting 
gas. 

Water  boils  in  an  uncovered  vessel  at  212  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, and  no  amount  of  heat  applied  to  it  will  make  it  any  hot- 
ter. When  a  pot  of  food  has  reached  the  boiling  point,  a 
smaller  flame  will  keep  it  boiling.  Turn  the  gas  as  low  as  it 
may  be  safely  turned  and  still 
keep  the  pot  boiling,  and  the 
food  will  cook  as  rapidly  as 
when  the  gas  is  turned  on  full.  FIG.  10.  Single  top  burner 

Gas  is  a  safe  fuel  in  most  and  valve- 
hands;  it  saves  the  housekeeper  much  labor  because  it  makes 
so  little  dirt.  When  properly  managed,  it  is  the  cheapest 
fuel  to  be  had  at  the  present  time. 

20.  Cold-Process  Gasoline  Gas  Stoves.  Cold-process 
gasoline  stoves  require  a  burner  fitted  with  valves  in  which 

the  gas  orifice  can  be  en- 
larged or  diminished.  The 
FIG.  10-0.  Oven  burner.  best  of  these  for  using  cold- 

process  gasoline  gas  can  be  adjusted  by  a  turn  of  the  finger. 

The  adjustment  of  the  valve  is  to  compensate  for  the  neg- 
lect upon  the  part  of  users  of  these  plants.  Very  frequently 
they  will  allow  the  supply  of  gasoline  in  the  carburetor  to  run 
nearly  out  before  they  replenish  it,  in  which  case  the  gas 
comes  to  the  burners  in  a  thinner  quality,  and  in  order  to  pro- 
vide the  same  volume  of  heat,  it  is  necessary  to  adjust  the 
burner  valves  and  throw  a  larger  stream  of  gas  into  the 
burner.  They  are  sometimes  fitted  with  burners  having  side- 
sawed  caps  (Figs.  10  and  10-a).  These  seem  to  expose  the 
burning  gas  to  the  air  in  a  way  to  make  it  burn  better  than  in 


30  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

other  burners  built  for  gas  forced  into  them  by  greater  pres- 
sure than  is  this  gas.  The  opening  for  air  must  be  adjusted 
from  time  to  time  so  as  to  keep  the  proportion  of  gas  and  air 
such  that  it  will  produce  a  blue  flame. 

21.  Acetylene  Stoves.  Stoves  for  the  burning  of  acety- 
lene are  similar  in  construction  to  gas  stoves.  Tho  acetylene 
furnishes  a  satisfactory  and  economical  light,  it  is  not  an 
economical  fuel  when  compared  with  kerosene,  gas,  wood  or 
coal.  For  this  reason,  it  is  not  much  used.  It  requires  two 
and  three-tenths  units  of  acetylene  gas  to  equal  one  unit  of 
natural  gas  for  heating. 


CHAPTER  III 
OIL  STOVES 

22.  Purpose  of  Oil  Stoves.     Oil  stoves  are  designed  for 
the  comfort  of  the  woman  who  cannot  have  a  gas  or  an  elec- 
tric stove.    They  consist  of  tank,  feed  pipe  and  burners  (Figs. 
11-a  and  11-6).  As  they  are  portable,  they  can  be  moved  to  a 
summer  kitchen  or  sheltered  back  porch  on  hot  summer  days. 

Oil  stoves  are  not  fool-proof  and 
should  never  be  used  by  those  who 
are  afraid  of  them  and  who  do  not 
understand  them.  Manufacturers 
have  done  much  to  make  accidents 
avoidable,  and  they  send  detailed 
instructions  with  each  stove.  These 
should  be  followed  exactly. 

23.  Mechanical  Parts  of  Kero- 
sene Stove.   The  kerosene  oil  stove 
consists  of  a  tank  of  oil  with  a  pipe 
leading  to  a  hollow  ring-like  cup  be- 
low the  burner  (A,  Fig.  11).     When 
the  burner  is  lighted,  the  oil  passes 
down  this  pipe  into  the  ring,  where 

it  becomes  heated  and  is  vaporized.  FIG.  11.  Parts  of  oil  stove 
As  the  vapor  rises,  it  is  mixed  with 

air  and  burns  with  .a  blue  flame.  The  small  holes  in  the 
chimney  of  the  burner  and  at  the  base  of  the  burner  are  to 
admit  air.  They  must  be  kept  open. 


32 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


If  the  burner  is  dirty  or  not  properly  adjusted,  the  right 
amount  of  air  may  not  reach  the  vaporized  oil  to  mix  with  it 
and  the  stove  will  burn  with  a  yellow  flame,  making  soot  and 
smoke. 


FIG,  11-a.    Large  oil  stove  with  oven. 


24.  The  Burner.  The  burner  consists  of  a  chimney,  a 
wick  or  ring  of  asbestos,  a  valve  or  a  lever,  and  a  ring-like  cup 
at  the  base  of  the  burner.  There  are  three  distinct  types  of 
burners  known  as  long  chimney,  short  chimney  and  wickless. 


OIL  STOVES 


33 


The  wickless  stoves  are  equipped  with  a  ring  of  asbestos 
which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  wick. 

The  burners  on  one  oil  stove  are  usually  all  alike.  The 
burners  on  various  makes  dif- 
fer. Those  in  which  the  flame 
comes  nearest  the  kettle  or 
cooking  food  produce  the  most 
heat  for  cooking  (Fig.  12). 
Those  with  the  blaze  farther 
away  from  the  food  seem  to  be 


FIG.  11-6.   Oil  stove  with- 
out oven. 


FIG.  12.  Oil  stove  burner,  show- 
ing fire  close  to  utensil. 


easier  for  the  excitable  woman  to  manage  (Fig.  13). 

25.  The  Chimney.     Kerosene  stoves  are  furnished  with 
metal  chimneys.    A  device  for  mixing  air  with  the  burning 
fuel  forms  a  part  of  short  chimneys  (B,  Fig.  11).    The  chim- 
ney must  set  on  the  burner  properly,  or  the  stove  will  not 
burn  with  a  blue  flame.    After  lighting  a  burner,  give  the 
chimney  a  turn  or  two  to  make  sure  that  it  is  in  place.    There 
is  usually  a  groove  into  which  it  fits. 

26.  Lighting  the  Stove.    When  lighting  a  stove,  turn 
the  valve  which  permits  the  oil  to  flow  (C,  Fig.  11)  into  the 


34 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


cup  below  the  burner,  or  lower  the  lighter  into  the  oil.  Wait 

a  moment,  if  need  be,  for  the  wick  or  ring  to  become  saturated 

with  oil.    Raise  the  chimney  and  touch  the  lighted  match  to 

the  ring  or  wick  at  several  places.  (Fig.  14,  and  Fig.  11,  also, 
show  the  position  of  the  chimney 
and  wick  for  lighting.)  Lower  the 
chimney,  seeing  that  it  fits  back  into 
place.  Adjust  the  wick  to  the  proper 
height  to  get  a  blue  flame  (Fig.  15). 
Do  not  turn  very  high  at  first,  for,  while 
the  stove  is  becoming  heated,  the  flame 
burns  higher  and  higher,  and  may  begin 
to  smoke. 

27.    Management  of  the  Flame. 
Turn  the    flame    no    higher    than    is 

FIG.  13.  Burner  for  oil  needed  to  keep  the  pot  boiling.    Some 
stove-  stoves  do  not  burn  well  when  turned 

very  low.     Do  not  have  the  flame 

so  high  or  so  low  that  it  gives  off 

smoke  or  gas.     When  turning   out 

the  fire,  be  sure  to  turn  the  wick 

clear  down,  or  turn  the  valve  or  lever 

(Fig.  12)  to  the  point  indicated  as 

out  on  stoves  which  lift  the  ring  above 

the  oil.     If  this  precaution  is   not 

taken,  most  stoves  leak  oil  when  not 

in  use,  because  the  wick  or  rings  carry 

oil  to  the  upper  part  of  the  burner 

where  it  spreads  over  the  stove. 
28.    Adjustment  and  Care  of  the  Stove.    To  prevent 


FIG.  14.  Lighting  oil  stove. 


OIL  STOVES  35 

trouble  with  uneven  flames,  set  the  stove  perfectly  level,  par- 
ticularly the  wickless  one.  Keep  the  tank  filled,  but  not  too 
full.  Stoves  are  made  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  fill  them  too 
full.  An  oil  stove  cannot  explode  unless  gas  has  formed  in 
some  part,  like  the  tank,  and  becomes  ignited  by  heat  or  a 
spark.  Gas  is  more  likely  to  col- 
lect in  the  tank  when  it  is  almost 
empty. 

When  the  tank  is  removed  for 
filling,  any  gas  forming  passes  out 
into  the  room  and  mixes  with  so 
much  air  that  it  is  harmless.  If  it 
is  filled  before  the  oil  burns  out  of 
the  pipe  above  the  level  of  the 
burners,  no  gas  will  be  formed. 

Stoves  must  be  kept  clean.    A 

clean  stove  means  one  with  a  clean 

• 

framework,   clean  burners,   clean 

.  ..  .  FIG.  15.   Different  types  of 

chimney,  clean  oil  and   a   clean        flames. 

wick  or  ring. 

If  a  stove  has  not  been  in  use  for  some  time,  replace  the  old 
wick  with  a  fresh  one  (Fig.  16).  Clean  the  stove  by  wiping 
off  all  the  parts  with  a  cloth.  Keep  the  charred  edges  of  the 
wick  trimmed  level.  The  wick  with  a  crust  of  char  on  top 
does  not  burn  well.  Use  a  match  or  small  stick  in  removing 
the  char.  Light  the  wick  to  see  if  it  is  even.  If  any  point 
burns  with  a  yellow  flame,  trim  this  place  until  the  wick  burns 
even.  The  tank  can  easily  and  quickly  be  lifted  off  modern 
oil  stoves.  Do  not  re-fill  near  a  lighted  stove. 

29.     When  the  Stove  Gives  Trouble.     In  case  the  stove 


36  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

begins  to  blaze  and  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  valves,  re- 
move the  tank  and  carry  it  to  some  safe  place  where  the  kero- 
sene in  it  cannot  catch  fire.  When  this  is  done,  there  is  less 
than  a  pint  of  oil  left  in  most  stoves,  and  this  will  soon  burn 
out  without  doing  much  harm,  if  clothing  and  water  are  kept 

away  from  the  blaze.  Open  win- 
dows and  doors  to  let  out  gases 
and  smoke.  If  necessary,  move  the 
stove  away  from  walls  or  furniture. 
Do  not  attempt  to  smother  out  the 
flame.  There  is  too  much  danger 
of  clothing  catching  fire  when  this 
is  done.  It  is  far  safer  to  let  the 
small  amount  of  oil  left  in  the  stove 
burn  up.  Oil  stoves  cannot  explode 
when  the  tank  is  removed. 

As  soon  as  the  oil  has  burnt  out 
of  the  pipes  and   the   wicks   are 

FIG.    16.    Inserting  new     burning  with  a  dull  glow,  extinguish 
wlck-  the  smoldering  fire  on  the  wicks  by 

patting  them  with  the  blade  of  a  knife  or  a  piece  of  woolen 
cloth. 

If  a  burner  has  been  blazing  beyond  control,  remove  the 
chimney.  Brush  out  any  soot  which  has  formed.  Examine 
the  burner,  taking  it  apart,  if  possible.  Blazing  may  come 
from  wicks  not  fitting,  or  from  their  getting  so  short  that  the 
screw  on  the  lever  fails  to  move  them  up  or  down.  The  ring 
in  wickless  stoves  may  not  be  thick  enough,  or  they  may  have 
slipped  out  of  place,  or  become  broken.  Replace  with  new 
wicks  or  rings. 


OIL  STOVES 


37 


Notice  if  any  part  of  the  burner  shows  evidence  of 
melting.  If  it  does,  do  not  use  this  burner  until  inspected 
and  mended  by  an  expert.  If  the  lever  has  become  worn  so 
that  it  fails  to  work,  it  must  be  replaced  or  a  new  burner  put 
on  the  stove. 

30.  Construction  of  Gasoline  Stoves.    The  gasoline 
stoves  consist  of  a  burner  and  an  oil  tank  connected  by  a  pipe 
(Fig.  17).    The  tank  is  elevated  for 

the  purpose  of  forcing  the  gasoline 
into  the  burner.  The  pipe  may  be 
any  length.  The  danger  from  a  gaso- 
line stove  comes  from  the  fact  that 
gasoline  vaporizes  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. *  If  the  tank  becomes  heated, 
producing  gas,  and  then  becomes 
mixed  with  the  proper  proportion  of 
air,  it  may  explode  if  it  comes  in 
contact  with  a  spark.  (Fig.  17-a  is 
an  illustration  of  the  cross-section  of 
the  Red  Star  gasoline  or  vapor  stove. 
See  page  38.) 

From  the  pipe  to  the  burner  is  a  burner- 
very  small  opening,  so  that  a  stream  of  gasoline  little  larger 
than  the  diameter  of  a  needle  flows  into  the  burner  proper, 
when  the  valve  is  open.  The  valve  may  be  partly  closed  so 
that  the  stream  will  not  flow  so  fast. 

Below  the  burner  is  a  small  cup.  When  the  stove  is  cold, 
the  gasoline  flowing  into  the  burner  collects  here. 

31.  To  Light  the  Stove.     The  way  to  light  the  stove  is 
to  turn  on  the  gasoline  until  it  fills  the  cup  below  the  burner. 


FIG.  17.   Simple   gasoline 


38 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


When  this  is  full,  close  the  valve.     Set  this  gasoline  on  fire. 

As  it  burns,  it  will  heat  the  burner. 

The  burner  is  heated  so  that  when  more  gasoline  is  turned 

on,  this  heat  will  change  the  gasoline  to  gas.     If  the  burner  is 

not  hot  enough  to  do  this,  the  gasoline  flowing  from  the  pipe 

will  flow  down  into  the 
cup  and  the  stove  will 
burn  with  a  smoky  flame 
which  becomes  higher  and 
higher  and  looks  very 
alarming. 

When  this  happens,  the 
valve  should  be  closed, 
and  the  fire  permitted  to 
burn  all  the  gasoline  which 
has  collected  in  the  cup. 
This  may  be  sufficient  to 
heat  the  burner.  Test 
after  the  fire  has  gone  out, 
by  lighting  a  match,  turn- 
ing on  the  gasoline  and 


FIG.  17-a.    Cross-section  of  gasoline 
stove  showing  burner. 


touching  the  lighted  match 
to  the  burner.  If  all  right, 
it  will  burn  with  a  blue  flame;  if  not,  it  will  burn  with  a 
yellow  flame.  If  the  yellow  flame  is  noticed,  turn  out  the  fire 
by  closing  the  valve,  and  let  the  burner  get  cold  before  at- 
tempting again  to  light  it.  See  that  the  burner  has  not  be- 
come clogged  with  soot  or  dirt.  Then  proceed  to  re-light  the 
stove. 

Air  must  be  mixed  with  the  gasoline  to  make  it  burn  with  a 


OIL  STOVES  .  39 

blue  flame.  The  air  enters  the  burner  through  the  same  tube 
that  the  gasoline  flows  into  the  cups  when  the  burner  is  cold. 
In  the  burner  are  small  holes  for  the  escape  of  the  gas  mixed 
with  air,  and  here  the  blue  flame  should  appear,  and  nowhere 
else.  If  it  appears  elsewhere,  the  burner  is  not  working  prop- 
erly. Sometimes  the  gas  ignites  at  the  point  where  the  air  is 
mixed  with  it.  The  fire  should  then  be  turned  out  and  the 
stove  re-lighted  immediately. 

If  the  little  holes  where  the  flames  should  be,  or  if  any  other 
part  of  the  stove  is  clogged  with  soot,  it  will  not  burn  as  it 
should.  It  must  be  cleaned.  A  dirty  gasoline  stove  is  dan- 
gerous. 

32.  Filling  the  Gasoline  Stove.  Never  get  oil  on  the 
tank  or  any  part  of  the  stove  while  filling  it.  If  oil  is  spilled, 
wipe  it  up  before  igniting  the  stove.  Do  not  fill  the  tank 
when  the  stove  is  lighted  or  when  there  is  a  fire  anywhere  near 
the  tank.  If  the  fire  has  been  burning,  close  all  the  valves 
and  wait  until  it  goes  out  before  opening  the  tank.  Close  the 
valve  from  tank  to  pipe  before  filling.  Fill  the  tank  and  cover 
it  before  lighting  the  stove  again. 

Keep  the  tank  filled.  As  soon  as  the  indicator,  which  is 
attached  to  a  cork  which  floats  on  top  of  the  gasoline,  shows 
that  the  oil  is  low,  turn  out  the  fire  and  refill  the  tank.  Do 
not  fill  the  tank  to  overflowing.  Gases  from  the  stove  can 
only  get  into  the  tank  when  it  is  empty  and  while  there  is  gas- 
oline in  the  pipe  to  feed  the  stove.  Gasoline  gas  is  very  in- 
flammable and  will  cause  an  explosion  if  it  becomes  ignited. 
The  tanks  from  gasoline  stoves  cannot  be  removed,  as  all  the 
joints  must  be  tight  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gasoline  fumes 
as  well  as  the  oil  itself.  The  opening  to  the  tank  must  never 


40  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

be  left  uncovered,  except  for  the  few  minutes  while  the  tank 
is  being  filled.  The  greatest  care  is  required  in  using  a  gaso- 
line stove ;  in  fact,  they  are  so  dangerous,  that  they  should  not 
be  highly  recommended  for  household  use.  The  description 
and  care  of  them  are  given  here  because  some  persons  persist 
in  using  them  when  they  desire  a  quick,  hot  fire  in  cases  where 
fuel  gas  is  not  available. 

33.  When  a  Burner  Blazes  and  Cannot  Be  Controlled. 
When  a  gasoline  stove  burner  blazes  and  cannot  be  controlled, 
first  close  the  valve  leading  from  the  tank  into  the  pipe. 
There  will  then  be  little  gasoline  to  burn,  and  no  gases  can 
get  back  into  the  tank. 

Keep  clothing  and  water  away  from  the  blaze.  Remember  that 
the  stove  is  set  on  a  metal  frame  which  is  not  inflammable. 
Shield  walls  and  other  objects  so  that  the  burner  may  blaze 
high  without  doing  damage.  Clothing  catches  fire  easily, 
but  the  metal  stove  will  not  be  consumed. 

If  the  valves  are  shut,  the  blaze  will  cease  when  the  gasoline 
has  burnt  out  of  the  burner  and  pipe.  If  the  gasoline  contin- 
ues to  flow  out  of  the  burner  in  spite  of  turning  the  valve  and 
there  is  a  danger  of  its  spreading  to  the  floor  or  table,  set  a 
shallow  pan  under  the  stove  to  catch  the  gasoline.  It  can 
burn  in  this  way  with  considerable  safety.  Do  not  attempt 
to  carry  a  burning  stove.  Simply  protect  floor,  walls  and  fur- 
niture from  catching  fire,  and  let  the  gasoline  burn. 

34.  Changing  Fuel  in  Vapor  Stoves.     There  are  some 
stoves  which  are  interchangeable,  in  that  they  may  be  ad- 
justed to  burn  kerosene,  gasoline  or  distillate.    These  are  of 
the  type  called  'Vapor"  because  they  change  the  oil  to  gas  be- 
fore it  is  ignited.    A  change  from  one  kind  of  fuel  to  another 


OIL  STOVES  41 

should  never  be  made  without  thoroly  cleaning  the  stove  and 
adjusting  it  to  the  fuel  that  is  to  be  used. 

35.  Operation  of  Vapor  Stoves.  It  is  safest  to  use 
kerosene  in  these  stoves.  Distillate  is  a  name  given  to  a  dif- 
ferent mineral  oil  product  from  kerosene  or  gasoline.  To 
work  well,  these  burners  must  be  kept  clean.  (Fig.  17-a.) 

The  operation  of  the  stove  is  simple.  Put  enough  fuel, 
such  as  alcohol,  into  a  burner  to  heat  it  hot  enough  to  change 
the  oil  to  be  used  to  gas  and  ignite  it. 

After  the  burner  has  heated  for  three  or  four  minutes,  turn 
on  the  fuel  valve  in  the  pipe  which  leads  from  the  tank  toxthe 
burner.  The  fuel  will  light  from  the  burning  alcohol  already 
in  the  burner.  Adjust  the  height  of  the  flame  by  valve, 
which  regulates  the  amount  of  fuel  flowing  into  the  burner. 

If  anything  boils  over,  put  out  the  fire.  Close  the  valve. 
Remove  the  parts  of  the  burner.  Clean  and  wipe  them  dry. 
Replace  the  parts  of  the  burner,  and,  if  not  cool,  turn  on  the 
fuel  and  light.  If  cool,  heat  as  for  first  lighting,  and  turn  on 
the  fuel. 

Extinguish  the  fire  by  closing  the  valve  which  stops  the 
flow  of  oil  to  the  burner. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ELECTRIC  STOVES 

Electric  stoves  consist  of  frame,  heating  unit  and  switches 
to  regulate  the  flow  of  current.  Some  are  equipped  with 
oven,  thermometers  and  special  utensils  (Fig.  18). 


FIG.  18.   Stove  equipped  with  utensils. 

36.  Heating  Unit  of  Electric  Stove.  The  heating  unit 
consists  of  coils  of  wire  or  a  plate  of  metal  thru  which  the  cur- 
rent flows,  meeting  resistance  and  producing  heat.  If  the 


ELECTRIC  STOVES 


43 


current  flowed  freely  thru  the  wires,  little  heat  would  be  gene- 
rated (Figs.  19  and  20). 

37.  Wiring  of  Stoves.     It  is  advocated  that  a  separate 
circuit  of  heavy  wire  be  put  into  all  houses  where  current  is 
used  for  purposes  other  than  light- 
ing, to  provide  for  cooking  and  power 

connections. 

Too  heavy  loading  of  wires  with 
electric  appliances  causes  the  burning 
of  fuses  and  sometimes  damages  the 
electric  system.  Find  out  how  much 
current  the  wiring  of  the  house  will  carry  before  attaching 
new  devices.  There  is  danger  of  fire  if  too  much  current  is 
allowed  to  pass  over  a  wire  of  too  small  size. 

38.  Operation  of  Electric  Stoves.    Many  stoves  are 
equipped  with  a  switch  which  permits  different  amounts  of 


FIG.  19.   Heating  unit  of 
electric  stove. 


TRA  FtSE  W.l'Ci 


FIG.  20.  Heating  unit  of  electric  stove. 

current  to  pass  thru  the  stove  according  to  the  way  the  device 
is  set.    At  one  point  it  gives  low  heat;  another,  medium,  and 
a  third,  high  heat,  and,  lastly,  no  heat. 
The  cooking  of  food  on  an  open  burner  should  be  started 


44  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

with  high  heat  turned  on  so  that  the  food  may  cook  quickly. 
If  a  large  amount  of  food  is  cooking,  there  will  be  so  much 
radiation  from  the  vessel  that  it  may  require  all  the  current 
to  keep  it  cooking.  After  food  has  started  cooking,  the  switch 
can  be  turned  to  medium,  and,  later,  to  low,  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  food  and  the  temperature  desired.  Low  will 
keep  an  ordinary  pan  of  water  boiling,  once  it  has  started. 

A  few  minutes  before  the  food  is  to  be  removed  from  the 
open  burner,  the  current  should  be  turned  off,  as  the  heat  in 
the  stove  will  continue  the  cooking  for  several  minutes.  From 
tests  of  electric  stoves,  it  appears  that  in  most  of  them  the 
food  will  continue  to  cook  after  the  switch  is  turned  off  for 
about  the  same  number  of  minutes  that  it  requires  to  raise  the 
heating  unit  to  a  temperature  sufficient  to  boil  water  in  a 
small  shallow  pan.  A  housekeeper  who  is  using  electricity 
for  cooking  can  soon  learn  how  long  the  open  burners  and 
oven  of  her  stove  will  keep  food  cooking  after  the  current  is 
turned  off,  and  by  putting  this  information  to  use,  she  can 
save  many  dollars  in  a  year. 

39.  Care  of  Electric  Stoves.    When  thru  with  a  stove, 
always  turn  off  the  current.    Great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  stoves  do  not  become  overheated.    This  shortens  the  life 
of  the  stove. 

Sudden  cooling  of  the  coils  of  wire  caused  by  liquids  spilling 
on  them,  and  corrosion  of  the  wires  caused  by  dampness,  wear 
out  stoves  faster  than  need  be.  Do  not  wash  or  brush  dirt 
from  burners  having  open  coils  of  wire.  Burn  all  dirt  from 
the  burners. 

40.  Utensils  for  Electric  Stoves.    The  most  economical 
use  of  electricity  can  be  secured  with  utensils  built  around  the 


ELECTRIC  STOVES  45 

heating  units  (Figs.  20  and  21),  and  the  next  most  economical 
use  with  utensils  built  especially  to  fit  the  heating  units.  This 
means  that  there  would  be  a  heating  unit  for  each  utensil,  or 
size  of  utensil,  and  the  expense  of  equipment  would  be  con- 
siderable. Also,  more  care  would  be  needed  in  washing  the 
utensils  and  in  preventing 
them  from  becoming  bent. 
Such  facts  must  be  consid- 
ered in  choosing  between 
stoves  with  special  devices 
and  those  on  which  any  pan 
may  be  set.  After  install- 
ing an  electric  stove,  start 
with  new  utensils  because 

they  will  not  blacken  on      FlG-  21-  Utensil  with  heating  unit, 
an  electric  stove,  and  so   can  be  washed  with  the  other 
dishes. 

When  ordinary  household  utensils  are  used,  they  should  be 
of  such  shape  that  they  stand  flat,  as  they  also  should  on  a  coal 
range.  The  most  economical  use  of  heat  is  secured  when  the 
area  of  heat  is  smaller  than  the  area  of  the  bottom  of  the  ket- 
tle and  is  concentrated  on  the  utensil.  Care  should  be  taken 
when  stoves  are  installed,  that  they  are  properly  grounded  so 
that  they  cannot  burn  any  one.  A  light  bulb  is  attached  to 
some  stoves  so  that  when  the  current  is  on  the  light  burns, 
and  when  it  is  off,  the  light  goes  out.  Such  a  light  should  be 
on  all  large  stoves. 

41.  Detachable  Cooking  Devices.  Cooking  and  heat- 
ing devices  should  have  larger  wires  than  those  for  lighting 
alone.  Consequently,  the  attachment  of  a  heating  device  in 


46  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

a  common  light  socket  may  cause  burning  out  of  fuses  or  other 
damage. 

One  danger  in  using  detachable  electric  devices  occurs  in 
not  turning  off  the  current  when  the  stove  is  not  in  use,  thus 
permitting  it  to  become  overheated.  This  shortens  the  life 
of  the  stove. 

Any  tendency  of  a  stove  or  other  electric  device  to  give 
people  a  shock  when  being  used  should  be  taken  as  a  warning 
to  have  the  device  examined  by  an  expert  and  the  trouble 
corrected.  Have  the  wires  repaired  as  soon  as  the  insulation 
breaks  or  burns  off.  Uninsulated  wires,  such  as  cables  and 
cords,  are  unsafe. 


CHAPTER  V 
ALCOHOL,  ACETYLENE,  AND  CANNED  HEAT 

42.  Alcohol  Stoves.     Alcohol  stoves  are  made  only  in 
small  sizes  for  light  housekeeping.     There  are  three  general 
types  of  these — those  which  burn  with  a  wick,  those  which 
generate  gas,  and  those  which  permit  the  alcohol  to  burn  off 
of  the  top  surface  of  the  container. 

Alcohol  does  not  produce  much  smoke  in  burning,  even 
when  no  provision  is  made  for  mixing  air  with  it.  The  ordi- 
nary alcohol  lamp,  having  a  wick,  may  be  used  as  a  heating 
stove.  Stoves  with  wicks  draw  the  alcohol  up  by  capillary 
attraction  to  the  point  of  ignition,  and  the  metal  jacket  about 
the  wick  prevents  the  fire  burning  back  into  the  bowl  con- 
taining the  alcohol.  The  char  from  the  top  of  the  wick  must 
be  brushed  off  from  time  to  time.  No  other  care  is  needed 
for  these  stoves  or  lamps.  Some  of  them  are  provided  with 
devices  for  checking  the  burning  of  the  alcohol  in  order  to 
regulate  the  heat.  This  is  desirable  since  a  small  flame  of 
alcohol  produces  much  heat. 

Extinguish  the  fire  by  covering  the  wick  with  a  metal  cup. 

43.  Vapor  Stoves.     Alcohol  vapor  stoves  which  generate 
gas  hold  the  alcohol  in  a  tank  slightly  raised  above  the  level  of 
the  burner.    A  pipe  leads  from  this  to  the  burner,  where  a 
small  stream  of  alcohol  is  permitted  to  enter  when  the  valve 
is  open. 

When  starting  these  stoves,  the  valve  is  first  opened  and 
enough  alcohol  allowed  to  flow  out  to  fill  a  cup  which  is  below 

4 


48  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

the  burner.  This  generally  holds  about  a  tablespoonful  of 
alcohol.  When  the  cup  is  full,  the  valve  is  closed  and  the 
alcohol  in  the  cup  ignited. 

This  heats  the  burner  enough  to  vaporize  the  alcohol. 
When  the  burner  is  heated,  open  the  valve  and  ignite  the  gas. 
If  all  the  alcohol  is  not  vaporized,  the  burner  has  not  been 
heated  hot  enough.  Close  the  valve  until  all  the  alcohol  in 
the  cup  is  burnt. 

44.  Wickless  Stoves.     Wickless  alcohol  stoves  are  used 
commonly  on  chafing  dishes.    The  burner  of  one  type  con- 
sists of  a  metal  dish  packed  with  a  porous  material  which  is 
non-inflammable,  but  a  good  conductor  of  liquids  by  capillary 
attraction,  and  the  top  is  covered  over  by  a  wire  screen.  The 
alcohol  is  poured  into  the  dish.    The  packing  and  screen  pre- 
vent air  from  entering  the  bowl  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  let 
the  fire  burn  below  the  screen  so  the  flame  stays  above  it, 
burning  off  any  alcohol  which  is  conducted  to  the  surface. 

The  only  possible  way  to  control  these  stoves  is  by  a  device 
which  can  cut  off  air.  One  of  these  is  a  plate-like  device  with 
a  handle.  This  fits  over  the  stove  and  only  that  portion  of 
the  top  burns  which  is  exposed  to  air  thru  the  hole  in  the 
plate.  Making  the  hole  larger  or  smaller  makes  the  burning 
surface  larger  or  smaller. 

To  extinguish  the  fire,  cover  the  entire  top  with  a  solid 
plate  to  cut  off  all  air. 

45.  Canned  Heat.     Canned  heat  is  alcohol  combined 
with  other  substances  into  a  cake  about  the  consistency  of 
hard  soap.     The  cover  to  the  can  is  used  to  extinguish  the 
fire.     It  should  not  be  fitted  into  the  top  of  the  can  until  the 
flame  has  been  extinguished  for  two  or  three  seconds.    Then 


ALCOHOL,  ACETYLENE  AND  CANNED  HEAT    49 

it  should  be  fitted  on  as  tight  as  possible  to  prevent  waste 
alcohol  by  vaporization. 

46.  Acetylene  Gas  Stoves.  By  adjustment  of  the 
amount  of  air  that  enters  the  burner,  acetylene  may  be  burnt 
in  a  gas  stove.  Usually  a  cap  is  placed  over  the  air  hole 
while  the  gas  is  being  ignited.  This  is  removed  as  soon  as  the 
gas  is  lighted,  so  that  it  will  burn  with  a  blue  flame.  The  use 
of  the  cap  prevents  burning  back.  It  is  best,  however,  to 
use  stoves  especially  designed  for  burning  acetylene. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FlRELESS  AND  STEAM  COOKERS 

47.  The  Fireless  Cooker.     The  fireless  cooker  is  a  box 
or  can  having  a  diameter  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  the 
largest  vessel  to  be  placed  in  it.    The  space  left  around  the 
vessel  is  packed  with  some  insulating  material  to  keep  in  the 
heat  (Fig.  22).     In  home-made  cookers,  this  material  may  be 
hay,  feathers,  pillows,  shredded  newspapers,  wood  shavings 
or  sawdust.     In  commercially-made  cookers,  it  is  felt,  asbes- 
tos wool,  cork,  or  other  insulating  material.    Because  most 
insulating  material  will  not  stay  in  place  and  readily  absorbs 
moisture  and  odors,  some  kind  of  lining  is  put  between  it  and 
the  vessel  holding  the  food.    This  makes  a  little  nest,  into 
which  the  vessel  fits.     In  the  better  made  cookers,  this  lining 
is  made  of  metal,  and  the  seams  are  water-tight. 

The  steam  from  the  cooking  food  is  absorbed  by  the  insu- 
lating material  if  this  lining  is  not  impervious  to  water. 
Enameled  or  earthen  linings,  if  well  glazed,  would  also  serve 
this  purpose  as  long  as  they  did  not  chip  or  crack. 

The  cover,  as  well  as  the  sides,  of  the  fireless  cooker  has  to 
be  padded  with  the  insulating  material.  The  cover  must  also 
fit  well  so  that  the  steam  and  heat  will  not  escape  thru  cracks 
between  it  and  the  body  of  the  cooker. 

48.  The  Stones  of  Fireless  Cookers.     The  stones  for 
fireless  cookers  are  usually  made  of  soapstone  or  some  com- 
posite which  will  absorb  considerable  heat.    They  should  be 
slightly  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  nest.    They  can  only  be 
used  with  safety  in  cookers  which  are  metal-lined  and  insu- 


FIRELESS  AND  STEAM  COOKERS 


51 


lated  with  material  which  will  not  ignite  at  a  low  temperature. 
Stones  should  not  be  put  in  home-made  cookers  which  are  not 
insulated  with  asbestos  or  other  fireproof  material.  Hot 
stones  can  be  used  with  safety  in  any  of  the  commercial  cook- 
ers which  come  fitted  with  them. 

The  temperature  in  a  fireless  cooker  is  below  boiling  most 


FIG.  22.  Section  of  fireless  cooker. 

of  the  time.  It  is,  therefore,  a  device  for  simmering  food, 
and  should  be  used  for  cooking  meats,  fruits,  vegetables  and 
cereal  dishes  which  require  or  are  improved  by  long,  slow 
cooking. 

Since  the  food  has  to  be  shut  in  a  fireless  cooker  to  keep  in 
the  heat,  fireless  cookery  is  a  method  of  steaming  of  food. 
For  this  reason,  it  has  a  slightly  different  flavor  from  food 
baked  in  the  oven,  much  as  fried  food  differs  from  roasted 
food.  Hot  stones  (Fig.  22)  are  put  in  most  fireless  cookers. 
The  heat  from  these  brown  the  food  and  give  to  the  otherwise 
steamed  food  a  flavor  similar  to  that  developed  in  baking, 
roasting  and  frying. 


52  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

49.  Heating  the  Stones.     Moisture  given  off  by  the 
cooking  food  is  absorbed  by  the  stones.    They  must  be  dried 
or  heated  very  slowly  to  prevent  this  moisture  from  cracking 
them.    When  the  stones  have  been  removed  from  the  cooker, 
wash  them,  because  they  absorb  odors  from  the  food.     Keep 
them  in  some  warm,  dry  place  while  they  are  not  in  use,  such 
as  in  the  warming  oven  of  the  cook  stove  or  on  a  radiator. 
When  wanted  for  use,  they  will  then  be  dry  enough  to  be 
placed  over  the  gas-stove  burner  if  it  is  not  turned  too  high  at 
first.    Drying  thus  saves  time  when  the  stones  are  needed. 

50.  Care  of  the  Cooker.    The  cooker  should  be  left 
open  to  air  while  not  in  use.  As  soon  as  the  food  and  stones  are 
removed  from  it,  the  moisture  should  be  wiped  out  and  the 
inside  washed  with  soap  and  water,  wiped  dry  and  left  to  air. 
Such  care  is  needed  to  prevent  the  cooker  from  taking  on  the 
odor  of  dishes  previously  cooked  and  transmitting  some  of 
them  to  those  cooked  later. 

51.  Other  Devices  Belonging  to  Cookers.     In  most 
commercial  cookers  there  are  wire  devices  to  raise  the  dishes 
of  food  from  the  stone  (Fig.  23) .    This  prevents  scorching  and 
boiling  over  when  the  stones  are  heated  very  hot.    These  de- 
vices are  also  used  to  hold  a  hot  stone  above  the  food  to  make 
a  brown  crust  on  it.    Some  cookers  are  furnished  with  valves, 
permitting  the  escape  of  steam  when  it  becomes  too  abundant. 
The  pressure  of  the  steam  automatically  opens  the  valve. 
This  device  insures  the  cooking  of  certain  vegetables,  cereals 
or  doughs  without  their  becoming  too  soggy  to  be  palatable 
(A,  Fig.  23). 

52.  Directions  for  Using  the  Cooker.    Put  the  stones 
on  to  heat.    Prepare  the  food  as  for  cooking  in  any  other  way. 


FIRELESS  AND  STEAM  COOKERS 


53 


Then  heat  it,  either  in  the  oven  or  on  top  of  the  stove.  It  is 
preferable  to  heat  the  food  in  the  same  vessel  in  which  it  is  to 
be  cooked  in  the  fireless  cooker.  Transferring  food  to  a  cold 


FIG.  23.    Devices  for  fireless  cooker. 

vessel  entails  a  loss  of  heat,  since  the  first  vessel  is  already 
heated. 

When  the  stones  and  food  are  hot,  place  the  stone  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cooker.     Put  in  any  asbestos  mats  or  other 


54 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


devices  which  are  needed  to  protect  the  food.  The  stone  should 
be  hot  enough  to  respond  to  the  test  for  flat  irons.  It  should 
make  the  snappy  noise  of  a  good  hot  iron  when  the  finger  is 
moistened  and  touched  to  it.  Place  the  food  in  the  cooker. 
Place  another  stone  above  the  utensil  if  it  is  desirable  to  have 


FIG.  24.    Gas  cookers. 

the  food  brown  on  top.  Close  the  fireless  cooker,  and  let  it 
stand  until  ready  for  use. 

53.  Time  of  Cooking  Food.  Six  hours  or  over  night 
should  be  allowed  for  the  cooking  of  cereals.  Stews  should 
be  given  two  to  three  hours'  time  for  cooking. 

Large  roasts  and  hams  require  five  to  six  hours.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary,  when  they  are  large,  to  remove  them 
and  heat  the  food  and  the  stones  on  the  stove  once  during  the 
process  of  cooking  Dumplings  and  angel  cakes  cook  well  in  a 
fireless  cooker.  So  do  all  dried  peas  and  beans. 


FIRELESS  AND  STEAM  COOKERS 


55 


It  is  profitable  to  cook  foods  requiring  more  than  forty 
minutes'  heating  in  a  fireless  cooker.  The  heating  unit  is  a 
part  of  some  cookers. 

Electric  cookers,  instead  of  being  furnished  with  stones  to 
be  put  inside  the  nest,  have  a  heating  unit  and  plate  for  hold- 
ing heat  in  the  cooker. 
Cold  food  may  be  put  in- 
to this  cooker,  the  current 
turned  on,  and  the  heat- 
ing and  cooking  all  be 
done  inside  the  cooker. 
The  electric  oven  which 
is  well  insulated  answers 
the  purpose  of  a  fireless 
cooker  when  the  current 
is  disconnected.  Either  a 
thermometer,  which  the 
housewife  may  watch,  or 
thermostat,  which  con- 
trols the  current,  must  be 
attached  to  electric  cook-  FlG>  25.  steam  cooker, 

ers  to   prevent   burning 
the  food  or  injuring  the  cooker  with  too  much  heat. 

54.  Gas  Cookers.  Since  heated  air  rises,  special  cookers 
in  the  form  of  insulated  caps  are  made  to  put  over  dishes  of 
food  heated  on  gas  burners  (Fig.  24). 

The  inside  of  the  cap  must  be  kept  clean.  Get  the  dishes 
hot  with  the  cap  suspended  over  the  food,  but  leaving  about 
an  inch  space  for  the  escape  of  gases  from  the  heating  unit. 
As  soon  as  the  food  and  cap  have  been  sufficiently  heated 


56  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

over  the  fire,  turn  off  the  gas  and  lower  the  cap  so  that  it  will 
retain  the  heat.  After  the  cooker  has  been  used,  it  should  be 
wiped  out  clean;  otherwise  it  will  retain  some  of  the  odors  of 
the  cooked  food. 

55.  Steam  Cookers.  There  are  several  steam  cookers 
in  use  in  homes.  The  simplest  of  these  is  a  covered  pan 
which  has  a  perforated  bottom,  which  is  set  over  another  pan 
(A,  Fig.  25),  in  which  water  is  placed  for  forming  steam.  One 
of  the  difficulties  of  this  cooker  is  that  the  water  in  the  lower 
pan  cannot  be  watched  and  may  boil  dry.  On  the  more  im- 
proved cookers  a  whistling  device  (B,  Fig.  25)  is  attached  to  the 
pan,  and  when  the  water  becomes  low  and  steam  ceases  to 
flow  thru  it,  air  begins  to  come  in,  and  the  device  makes  a 
whistling  noise. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  I 

1.  What  is  smoke?     Under  what  conditions  is  the  greatest  amount 
of  heat  for  cooking  or  other  household  purposes  produced  from  fuel? 

2.  How  is  an  oven  made  to  heat  evenly? 

3.  Explain  the  purpose  of  each  draft  and  damper  on  a  stove. 

4.  Observe  the  amount  of  fuel  used  in  a  coal  stove  from  day  to 
day.     Make  the  same  kind  of  observation  for  a  gas  or  electric  stove. 
How  was  the  stove  managed  when  the  least  fuel  was  used? 

5.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  gas  stove.     Find  the  vent  thru 
which  the  gas  enters  the  burner.     Is  this  large  or  small? 

6.  Where  is  the  air  regulator?     For  what  is  it  used? 

7.  What  has  happened  when  the  gas  in  a  burner  "burns  back"? 

8.  How  should  a  kerosene  stove  be  regulated?     How  should  it  be 
cared  for? 

9.  What  precautions  should  you  take  against  fire  from  kerosene  and 
gasoline  stoves? 

10.  Describe  the  heating  unit  of  an  electric  stove. 

11.  How  may  electric  current  be  saved  in  the  operation  of  an  elec- 
tric stove? 

12.  How  does  a  fireless  cooker  cook  food? 

13.  How  may  one  determine  when  it  is  economical  to  use  a  fireless 
cooker? 


PART  II 
HEATING  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  VII 
WARM-AIR  FURNACES 

56.  Principle  Upon  Which  a  Furnace  Works.    The 

success  of  warm-air  heating  depends  on  a  natural  circulation 
of  air  thruout  all  the  rooms  which  are  to  be  heated.  The  air 
is  the  vehicle  of  transmission  of  the  heat  from  the  fire  to  the 
rooms  to  be  warmed. 

A  warm-air  furnace  is  simply  a  large  stove  encased  in  a 
sheet-metal  jacket  (Figs.  26  and  27).  The  jacket  is  usually 
insulated  with  asbestos,  since  the  stove  is  set  in  the  basement 
where  radiation  of  heat  is  not  desired.  The  air  entering  the 
casing  is  warmed  by  the  stove.  As  the  air  is  warmed,  it  ex- 
pands and  becomes  lighter,  so  rises  to  the  top  of  the  furnace; 
from  here  it  is  conducted  to  the  rooms  above.  The  warm  air 
which  has  passed  upward  must  be  replaced  by  cooler  air  en- 
tering at  the  bottom  of  the  jacket.  In  the  rooms  above,  there 
must  be  outlets  for  the  cold  air,  already  in  them,  so  that  it 
may  be  replaced  by  the  incoming  warm  air.  Cold-air  shafts 
from  the  floor  leading  downward  serve  as  outlets.  Some- 
times they  return  the  cooled  air  to  the  base  of  the  furnace 
jacket. 

57.  The  Stove  Part.     The  stove  part  of  the  hot-air  fur- 
nace consists  of  a  fire  pot  supported  above  a  place  where  the 
ashes  may  fall  and  a  chimney  to  carry  off  smoke.    The  draft 


58 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


below  the  grate  in  the  fire  pot  lets  in  air  which  is  essential  to 
the  proper  burning  of  the  fuel.  In  this  respect,  it  is  similar 
to  a  cook  stove.  A  draft  above  the  fire  when  opened  a  little 
lets  in  air  which  aids  in  the  complete  combustion  of  the  gases 


FIG.  26.  Warm-air  furnace. 

given  off  by  the  fuel.  Burning  these  gases  adds  to  the  amount 
of  heat  secured  from  the  fuel.  Opening  the  draft  wider  checks 
the  burning  of  the  fire.  There  should  be  a  damper  in  the 
smoke  pipe.  When  this  is  closed,  it  checks  the  draft  up  the 


WARM-AIR  FURNACES  59 

chimney.  This  is  needed  because  some  chimneys  often  draw 
up  air  too  fast  to  make  the  fire  burn  well.  When  checking  the 
fire,  close  the  draft  below,  open  the  one  above  the  fire  box, 
and  close  the  one  in  the  pipe.  To  make  the  fire  burn  fast, 
open  the  draft  below,  close  the  one  above  the  fire  box,  and 


FlG.  27.   Circulation  of  warm  air. 

open  the  one  in  the  pipe.  Remember  that  a  fire  will  not  burn 
well  if  there  is  too  much  draft.  Adjust  the  drafts  until  the 
fire  burns  with  a  clear,  bright  flame  without  giving  off  smoke. 
After  a  fire  is  built,  the  manner  of  adding  fuel  makes  a  differ- 
ence in  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace.  When  using  coal,  add 
it  in  rather  small  amounts,  spreading  it  in  a  layer  over  the 
entire  fire.  Do  not  make  this  layer  so  thick  that  the  fire 
smokes.  The  fuel  will  not  burn  with  a  clear  flame  if  the  fire 
is  being  smothered.  Much  fuel  is  wasted  by  ignorant  and 
careless  management  of  furnaces. 


60  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

58.  The  Cold-Air  Shaft.     It  is  thru  a  cold-air  shaft  that 
the  cooler  air  comes  into  the  furnace.    Some  furnaces  have 
this  built  so  that  it  draws  the  cooling  air  from  the  rooms  above 
down  into  the  furnace  to  be  heated  again.  This  is  an  econom- 
ical arrangement.    Some  others  draw  fresh  air  from  out  of 
doors  into  the  furnace,  letting  the  cold  air  from  the  rooms 
above  drain  into  the  cellar  and  out  of  doors.    This  is  more 
expensive,  as  the  air  to  be  heated  is  usually  colder,  but  it  has 
the  advantage  of  helping  ventilate  the  rooms  by  bringing  a 
constant  supply  of  fresh  air. 

The  cold-air  shaft  leading  from  out  of  doors  should  have 
the  outer  end  covered  with  wire  mesh,  and  a  cloth  which 
should  be  washed  or  renewed  often. 

Never  sweep  dirt  down  a  register  or  cold-air  shaft.  It 
comes  back  into  the  room  in  time.  Dust  the  registers  occa- 
sionally. 

In  older  heating  systems,  there  was  but  one  large  cold-air 
shaft  to  drain  the  cold  air  from  the  rooms  above.  In  more 
modern  houses,  a  cold-air  shaft  is  placed  in  every  room  that 
may  be  shut  off  from  the  others.  This  does  away  with  the 
old  difficulty  of  heating  a  closed  room,  for  it  is  as  important 
that  the  colder  air  gets  out  as  that  the  warm  air  gets  in. 

59.  Hot- Air  Pipes .     The  hot-air  pipes  lead  from  the  top 
of  the  jacket  about  the  furnace  to  the  floor  above.     In  most 
houses,  one  pipe  goes  to  each  room.     This  is  unnecessary  if 
the  rooms  are  not  closed  off,  but  if  they  are,  they  need  the 
pipe  entering  the  room.    To  economize  with  heat  and  regu- 
late the  amount  of  air  passing  up  these  pipes,  there  must  be 
a  shutter  in  them,  near  the  furnace,  as  well  as  in  the  register. 
This  shutter  is  placed  near  the  furnace  so  that  no  heat  passes 


WARM-AIR  FURNACES 


61 


into  the  pipe  when  not  wanted  in  the  room  to  which  it  leads. 
This  saves  waste  in  radiation  from  the  pipe  in  the  cellar. 
When  a  room  is  not  in  use,  close  this  damper. 


58 


FIG.  28.  Pipeless  furnace. 

Since  warmed  air  will  continue  to  travel  upward  so  long  as 
it  stays  warmer  than  the  air  above,  it  is  important  that  the 
pipes  have  a  continuous  rise  thruout  their  entire  length,  tho 
in  some  parts  the  rise  may  have  to  be  only  very  slight.  The 


62  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

shorter  the  pipes,  the  better,  for  there  will  be  less  loss  of  heat 
from  radiation  on  the  way  to  the  rooms. 

60.     Location  of  the  Furnace.     A  central  location  for 
the  furnace  is  best  because  the  pipes  may  be  shorter,  and  this 


FIG.  29.    One-room,  hot-air  heater. 

makes  possible  a  greater  elevation  per  foot  of  each  pipe,  so 
that  the  air  can  flow  thru  it  faster.  A  central  location  also 
permits  a  uniform  distribution  of  pipes  about  the  furnace, 
which,  in  turn,  produces  a  more  even  flow  of  air  to  all  the 
rooms. 

The  air  from  the  hot  register  rises  to  the  top  of  the  room, 
or,  if  the  way  is  open,  to  the  top  of  the  house.  Here  it  spreads 


WARM-AIR  FURNACES  63 

over  the  upper  area.  As  it  cools  or  is  displaced  by  still  hotter 
air,  it  falls.  When  it  reaches  the  floor,  it  flows  down  the  cold- 
air  shaft  in  the  floor.  If  the  cold-air  shaft  is  not  in  the  floor, 
there  may  be  a  layer  of  colder  air  there  so  the  room  will  not 
be  comfortable. 

61.  Air.     There  is  a  constant  change  of  air  in  all  houses, 
due  to  opening  of  doors  and  the  fact  that  walls  are  not  air- 
tight.   This  may  not  be  enough  for  comfort.  If  a  room  is  not 
heating  well,  it  has  been  found  that  opening  the  window  to 
change  the  air  in  the  room,  even  when  the  outside  air  is  very 
cold,  helps  in  the  circulation  of  air  in  the  room,  and  so  with 
the  warming  of  it.     It  is  difficult  to  warm  a  room  filled  with 
stagnant  air. 

62.  Pipeless  Furnaces.    The  pipeless  furnace  works  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  one  with  pipes  (Fig.  28).    One  large 
opening  above  the  furnace  lets  the  heat  in  to  some  central 
room,  and  from  here  it  circulates  into  all  other  rooms  not 
closed  off  from  the  central  room.    The  cold-air  shaft  may  be 
around  the  opening  for  heated  air. 

Stoves  encased  in  a  metal  jacket  that  operate  like  hot-air 
furnaces  (Fig.  29)  are  used  in  heating  one-room  schoolhouses 
and  other  small  public  buildings. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HOT- WATER  SYSTEM  OF  HEATING 

63.  Equipment  for  Hot- Water  Heat.  The  hot-water 
system  of  heating  a  house  consists  of  a  boiler  in  the  basement 
or  below  the  level  of  the  lowest  radiator.  This  boiler  is  de- 
signed to  heat  water  as  it  circulates  thru  coils  over  the  fire 


FIG.  30.   Garland  furnace  with  hot-water  boiler. 

(Fig.  30) .  From  the  boiler,  pipes  lead  to  radiators  and  an  ex- 
pansion tank,  and  return  pipes  bring  the  cold  water  back  to 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler  (Fig.  31). 

The  heat  from  the  furnace  fire  causes  the  water  to  circulate 
thru  this  system  of  boiler,  pipes,  radiators  and  tank,  due  to 
the  fact  that  hot  water  is  lighter  than  cold  water. 


HOT-WATER  SYSTEM  OF  HEATING 


65 


64.  Heating  Unit.  The  heating  unit  of  a  hot-water 
system  is  like  any  stove  consisting  of  a  fire  pot  and  grate. 
Some  are  adjustable  so  that  different  kinds  of  fuel  may  be 


J I  • 


FIG.  31.   Hot-water  heating  system. 


66  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

used.  A  gas  burner  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  fire  pot  and 
used  for  heating  a  furnace,  but  this  is  one  of  the  most  wasteful 
ways  of  using  gas.  A  real  gas  furnace  is  much  more  econom- 
ical. The  fire  and  heat  from  the  fire  circulate  around  the  coils 
containing  the  water.  If  the  coils  are  not  constantly  kept 
full  of  water,  they  will  be  injured  by  the  heat. 

65.  The  Management  of  the  Fire.    When  burning 
coal,  spread  the  coal  all  over  the  surface  of  the  fire  in  a  thin 
layer  so  as  not  to  smother  it  and  thus  make  it  burn  with  a 
smoky  flame.     Keep  the  ashes  cleaned  out  from  underneath 
the  fire  and  around  the  fire  pot.     Clean  the  flues  every  forty- 
eight  hours.     Soot  on  the  coils  is  more  effective  than  asbestos 
would  be  in  keeping  heat  from  penetrating  to  the  water. 
Regulate  the  fire  with  the  drafts.     Open  the  one  below  the 
fire  box  to  let  in  air  to  aid  combustion.     Open  the  one  found 
in  most  furnace  doors  a  very  little.     This  aids  in  the  combus- 
tion of  gases,  thus  making  more  economical  use  of  the  fuel, 
while  opening  it  wider  checks  the  burning  of  the  fire.     Broken 
and  warped  doors  and  drafts  let  in  too  much  air  and  destroy  the 
efficiency  of  the  heater.    Open  the  chimney  damper,  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  Sec.  3,  admitting  air  to  check  the  draft.     Close  the 
chimney  or  pipe  damper  of  the  type  of  cook  stove  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  Sec.  3,  to  check  the  draft  up  the  chimney. 

66.  The  Pipes.     The  pipe  carrying  the  hot  water  from 
the  boiler  out  to  the  heating  system  leads  to  the  expansion 
tank,  tho  sometimes  separate  pipes  lead  from  the  boiler  to  a 
radiator.     Insulate  each  pipe,  except  the  part  in  the  room  to 
be  heated,  with  asbestos  or  some  other  covering,  to  keep  the 
heat  in  it.     Keep  the  pipes  full  of  water.     When  they  are  in- 
stalled, see  that  they  are  put  in  so  that  they  gradually  rise 


HOT-WATER  SYSTEM  OF  HEATING  67 

upward.  If  they  dip  downward  at  any  point,  air  will  collect 
at  these  places  and  check  the  circulation  of  hot  water  thru 
pipes. 

67.  Expansion  Tank.     The  expansion  tank  (A,  Fig.  31, 
and  Fig.  32),  placed  somewhat  higher  than  the  top  of  the 
highest  radiator,  is  fitted  with  an  overflow,  for  water  expands 
as  it  is  heated.     If  the  expan- 
sion tank  is  closed  so  that  the 

overflow  pipe  will  not  open  ex- 
cept under  pressure  after  the 
air  in  the  tank  has  become 

compressed  by  the  expansion 

FIG.  32.  Expansion  tank, 
of  the  water,  a  higher  temper- 
ature in  the  pipes  may  be  reached,  but  such  a  furnace  must 
be  given  more  careful  attention  than  one  with  an  open  ex- 
pansion tank.    Learn  to  know  the  parts  of  a  heating  system 
and  how  they  operate  before  trying  to  manage  it. 

68.  Water.    Fill  the  boiler  and  radiators  full  of  water, 
and  add  enough  more  to  partly  fill  the  expansion  tank.  From 
time  to  time,  note  the  height  of  water  in  the  tank,  to  know  if 
more  must  be  added.     Do  not  add  water  when  unnecessary, 
as  fresh  water  tends  to  rust  pipes  faster  than  water  from 
which  the  carbon  dioxide  and  air  have  been  exhausted.     To 
note  the  height  of  water,  read  the  gage. 

If  there  is  much  sediment  in  the  water  used,  this  must  be 
drawn  off  from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  to  prevent  its  accu- 
mulating there.  When  this  is  done,  fresh  water  must  be 
added  to  replace  the  water  drawn  off.  Loss  of  water  from 
evaporation  must  also  be  replaced.  No  water  should  be  put 
into  the  system  except  to  replace  such  loss.  Do  not  draw  the 


68 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


water  out  of  the  system,  and  refill  it  from  time  to  time.  The 
practice  of  changing  the  water  in  the  furnace  rusts  it  more 
than  keeping  the  same  water  in  it  all  the  time. 

69.     Radiators.     Radiators  (B,  Fig.  31)   are  made  of 
rather  complicated  coils  of  pipe,  so  often  an  accumulation 

of  air  lodges  in  them.  This  inter- 
feres with  the  circulation  of  the 
water  and  the  radiator  does  not 
get  hot.  There  usually  is  a  vent 
(A  and  B,  Fig.  33)  attached  to 
each  radiator  to  let  out  air  which 
collects  there.  If  a  radiator  does 
not  heat  well,  open  the  air  vent 

T-,      oo  TT  until  the  air  ceases  to  flow  from  it 

FIG.  33.  Vents  for  radiators. 

and  water  comes;  then  close  it. 

Valves  should  be  placed  at  places  where  cold  water  col- 
lects in  bad  plumbing. 


FIG.  34.    Radiators  under  floor. 

In  very  cold  weather,  do  not  entirely  shut  off  the  valve  of 
the  pipe  leading  to  any  radiator,  as  the  circulation  of  a  little 
warm  water  is  needed  to  keep  it  from  freezing.  Radiators 
may  be  placed  under  the  floor  (Fig.  34)  when  so  desired. 


CHAPTER  IX 
STEAM-HEATING  SYSTEMS 

70.  Equipment  for  Steam  Heat.  A  steam-heating 
system  consists  of  a  boiler,  a  fire  pot,  pipes  from  the  boiler 
leading  to  the  radiators,  and  radiators  (Fig.  35).  On  some 


FIG.  35.   Steam  furnace. 

sjji  systems,  return  pipes  are  pro- 
vided to  carry  condensed  steam 
or  water  back  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  boiler.  A  safety  valve 
(Fig.  36)  is  attached  to  steam- 
heating  systems  instead  of  an 
expansion  tank.  This  keeps  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  from  becoming  too  great,  and  thereby  prevents  an  ex- 
plosion. The  pressure  gage  (B,  Fig.  35)  must  be  set,  and, 
when  set,  should  only  be  changed  by  a  person  understanding 
it.  Build  and  manage  the  fire  for  a  steam  boiler  the  same  as 


70  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

for  any  stove  or  furnace.  Keep  water  in  the  boiler  at  212  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  so  steam  may  form,  for  without  it,  the  ra- 
diators will  not  be  heated.  Small  valves  are  attached  to  most 
steam  radiators.  Their  purpose  is  to  let  out  air,  which  accu- 
mulates in  the  radiator.  As  soon  as  the  steam  begins  to 
come  into  the  radiator,  it  forces  the 
air  out  of  the  valve.  When  it  reaches 
the  valve,  the  heat  in  the  steam 
causes  part  of  the  valve  to  expand  FIG.  36.  Safety  valve, 
and  close  the  outlet,  which  is  small.  When  the  radiator  is 
hot,  steam  should  not  escape,  provided  the  valves  are  in  good 
working  order.  There  is  a  gage  (Fig.  37)  furnished  with 
each  boiler  which  shows  how  much  water  is  in  it. 

Keep  enough  water  in  the  boiler  to  come  within  certain 
lines  on  the  indicator.  The  top  of  one  of  these  lines  is  usually 
six  or  eight  inches  from  the  top  of  the  boiler. 
There  is  always  some  variation  in  the  amount 
of  water  in  steam  furnaces  on  account  of  the 
formation  and  condensation  of  the  steam  in 
pipes  and  radiators.  See  that  the  boiler  is 
never  empty,  but  do  not  put  in  fresh  water 
except  when  necessary. 

The  space  above  the  water  in  the  boiler  is 
left  for  steam.   The  loss  of  water  from  a  boiler 

.rlG.  o7.    Water 

gage  for  steam  in  good  working  order  is  thru  the  air  valves  in 
the   radiators.     If  the   furnace   is  properly 
managed,  very  little  water  should  be  lost  during  the  course  of 
a  year,  so  there  is  little  need  for  adding  water. 

Some  furnaces  have  two  pipes  to  the  radiators.    When 
steam  is  shut  off  from  a  radiator,  the  valve  leading  to  the 


STEAM-HEATING  SYSTEMS  71 

pipe  which  carries  off  the  water  from  condensed  steam  must 
be  closed,  also,  to  prevent  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  from  forcing  water  from  the  boiler  up  this  pipe.  This 
may  happen  because  the  pipe  draining  the  water  from  the  ra- 
diators enters  the  furnace  near  the  bottom  of  the.  boiler.  The 
steam  being  retained  in  the  furnace  presses  down  on  the 
water  and  so  may  force  water  up  the  drain  pipe,  if  it  is  not 
closed,  instead  of  raising  the  safety  valve. 

Carelessness  of  this  kind  may  work  much  damage,  for  by 
this  means  all  the  water  from  the  furnace  can  be  forced  up 
into  the  radiators,  leaving  the  boiler  empty.  This  makes  it 
important  that  every  woman  should  understand  the  steam- 
heating  system  in  her  home. 

Some  steam-heating  systems  have  a  check  valve  in  the  pipe 
which  returns  water  to  the  boiler.  This  valve  permits  water 
to  flow  thru  it  in  but  one  direction;  that  is,  toward  the  boiler. 
This  prevents  a  rush  of  water  from  the  boiler  to  the  radiators. 

Steam  furnaces,  also,  are  often  equipped  with  another  safe- 
ty-valve device,  which  is  a  plug  of  metal  which  melts  at  a 
rather  low  temperature  and  is  placed  in  the  boiler  directly 
over  the  fire.  If  the  water  line  in  the  boiler  falls  low,  this 
plug  melts  and  steam  from  the  boiler  puts  out  the  fire,  thus 
saving  the  furnace  from  damage. 

However,  melting  out  the  plug  makes  much  work  both  in 
replacing  the  plug  and  in  cleaning  the  fire  box  to  rebuild  the 
fire,  so  that  it  should  not  be  depended  upon  to  regulate  the 
heat  in  the  boiler. 

Knocking  in  steam  radiators  occurs  most  often  in  those 
systems  using  the  inlet  steam  pipe  for  the  return  of  the  water 


72  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

which  has  formed  as  a^esult  of  condensation.  It  is  caused  by 
water  accumulating  at  some  point  and  the  steam  coming  up 
the  pipe,  violently  forcing  it  back  into  the  radiator.  This 
only  reaches  a  danger  point  in  systems  which  do  not  have 
pipes  of  the  proper  size,  or  when  the  pipes  do  not  slope  grad- 
ually downward,  so  that  all  the  water  may  flow  back  to  the 
furnace.  On  cold  days,  there  will  be  some  knocking  in  a 
steam  radiator  when  it  is  being  heated  in  the  morning.  A 
two-pipe  system,  while  it  is  somewhat  more  expensive,  is  less 
subject  to  this  trouble. 

71.  Steam  Gages.     Steam  gages  (B,  Fig.  35)  are  de- 
vices for  indicating  the  pressure  of  steam  within  an  inclosure. 
They  are  a  kind  of  spring  balance.    When  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  increases,  it  pushes  up  on  the  spring,  and  this  turns  the 
hand  of  the  indicator,  which  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of 
pressure  that  the  steam  is  exerting  on  the  inside  of  the  boiler 
or  container. 

72.  Safety  Valve.    A  safety  valve  (Fig.  36  and  A,  Fig. 
38)  consists  of  a  small  opening  to  a  boiler  over  which  is  a 
weight.  When  steam  is  developed  until  it  makes  enough  pres- 
sure on  the  inside  of  the  valve  to  raise  this  weight,  some  of  the 
steam  escapes,  thus  lowering  the  pressure  on  the  inside  until 
the  weight  falls  back  into  place.    Never  let  anything  interfere 
with  the  action  of  safety  valves. 

Most  safety  valves  have  the  weight  attached  to  a  lever 
which  has  a  movable  weight  on  it  so  that  the  position  of  the 
weight  on  the  lever  makes  a  difference  in  the  number  of 
pounds  of  pressure  required  to  open  the  valve.  By  means  of 
this  device,  the  temperature  of  the  inside  of  the  boiler  can  be 


STEAM-HEATING  SYSTEMS 


73 


kept  at  one  heat  or  another  as  desired,  since  this  temperature 
increases  or  decreases  with  the  pressure  under  which  the 
steam  is  held. 

Thus,  fifteen  pounds  pres- 
sure means  a  different  tempera- 
ture from  ten  pounds  pressure. 
Be  sure  to  adjust  the  weight 
for  the  temperature  desired. 
Pushing  the  weight  toward  the 
valve  lessens  the  amount  of 
pressure  needed  to  open  the 
valve.  There  is  usually  a 
steam  gage  on  boilers  to  indi- 
cate the  temperature  and 
pounds  of  pressure  inside. 
When  the  indicator  reaches 
the  point  desired,  the  safety 
valve  may  be  set  so  that  all 
steam  in  excess  of  the  desired 
amount  will  escape.  When 
this  is  done,  the  temperature  will  be  held  constant  in  the 
boiler  so  long  as  a  good  fire  under  it  is  maintained. 


FIG.  38.    Heating  plant  showing 
safety  valve. 


CHAPTER  X 
FIREPLACES  AND  HEATING  STOVES 

73.  Construction  of  Fireplace.    Fireplaces  are  an  en- 
largement in  the  base  of  a  chimney  where  fire  is  built.    The 
upper  part  of  the  fireplace  is  sloped  forward,  and,  in  some 
cases,  a  damper  is  placed  in  the  chimney  to  regulate  the  flow 
of  air  upward.    The  damper  should  not  be  so  constructed 
that  it  will  close  entirely,  for  if  it  did,  the  smoke  would  come 
into  the  room.    The  fire  in  the  fireplace  burns  best  when  the 
fuel  is  put  in  a  grate  or  on  andirons  so  that  air  can  get  under 
it  and  be  drawn  thru  it  by  the  draft  of  the  chimney.    A 
steady  draft  makes  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  complete  and 
thus  prevents  smoking. 

The  hearth  is  made  of  fireproof  material  and  should  be 
wide  enough  to  catch  all  sparks  flying  from  the  fire.  A  screen 
is  often  needed  for  safety  from  fire.  Do  not  pile  reserved 
fuel  or  put  rugs  on  the  hearth. 

Fireplaces  and  chimneys  should  be  built  of  fireproof  brick, 
stone  or  concrete.  Have  them  examined  once  a  year  for 
cracks,  as  these  make  them  unsafe.  The  walls  of  the  chim- 
ney and  the  fireplace  should  be  thick  enough  to  prevent  dan- 
ger from  fire. 

74.  Management  of  Fireplace.    The  management  of  a 
fireplace  is  very  simple.     The  draft  up  the  chimney  should  be 
properly  regulated  so  that  the  fire  does  not  smoke.    Sparks 
and  bits  of  fuel  should  not  be  drawn  up  the  chimney.    The 
fire  should  be  built  so  that  it  is  not  smothered.    Air  should 
circulate  thru  the  fuel.    Keep  the  ashes  cleared  away. 


FIREPLACES  AND  HEATING  STOVES  75 

There  are  some  fireplaces  which  are  intended  to  heat  rooms 
after  the  manner  of  hot-air  furnaces.  The  heat  and  smoke 
from  the  fire  pass  upward  thru  a  metal  heater,  encased  by  an 
air  chamber.  Much  of  the  heat  passes  thru  the  metal,  warm- 
ing the  air  in  the  chamber.  This  warmed  air  passes  thru 
pipes  and  registers  into  the  rooms,  while  the  smoke  finds  its 
way  to  the  chimney.  To  complete  the  circulation  of  air,  the 
cold  air  from  the  floor  passes  into  the  air  chamber  near  the 
floor  at  the  sides  of  the  fireplace.  Sometimes  fresh  air  from 
the  outside  of  the  building  is  mixed  with  the  air  in  the  cham- 
ber. 

If  there  is  an  opening  in  the  floor  of  the  fireplace,  a  damper 
should  be  put  in  this  opening  to  regulate  the  flow  of  air.  The 
heater  in  a  fireplace  must  be  kept  free  from  soot  and  ashes. 
If  the  metal  is  covered  with  soot,  heat  will  not  readily  pass 
thru  it,  and  the  soot  will  collect  moisture  and  cause  rusting. 

One  way  to  keep  the  heater  clean  is  to  regulate  the  draft  up 
the  chimney  so  that  ashes  and  bits  of  burning  fuel  are  not 
drawn  into  it.  Also,  the  fire  should  be  kept  burning  with  a 
clear  (not  smoky)  blaze.  Soot  is  unburnt  fuel. 

75.  Operating  Heating  Stoves.  A  stove  is  a  device  for 
holding  the  fuel  and  for  permitting  the  heat  to  pass  readily 
into  the  room.  In  the  stove  there  is  space  below  the  fire  for 
collecting  ashes.  There  is  an  opening  for  fresh  air  to  enter 
below  the  fuel,  to  aid  combustion,  and  a  damper  above  to  act 
as  a  check  draft  when  open,  a  chimney  to  carry  off  smoke,  and 
one  or  two  dampers  in  the  chimney  to  regulate  the  draft. 

When  a  fire  is  being  built,  close  the  draft  over  the  fire  box 
and  open  the  one  below;  open  the  damper  in  the  chimney — 
this  allows  the  free  passage  of  the  air  up  the  chimney. 


76  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

76.  Care  of  the  Stove.  Do  not  permit  a  large  bed  of 
ashes  to  accumulate  in  the  bottom  of  a  stove.  A  thin  layer  of 
ashes  must  be  kept  in  the  bottom  of  some  wood  stoves  to 
keep  the  fire  away  from  the  metal  bottom. 

The  polish  or  finish  of  the  stove  is  a  matter  of  taste.  Some 
stoves  are  made  of  iron,  which  does  not  need  blacking; 
some  must  be  blacked.  Blacking  keeps  them  from  rusting. 
All  must  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  dirt,  as  this  accumulates 
moisture  and  causes  the  stove  to  rust. 

Letting  the  stove  get  red  hot  warps  it.  It  should  not  be 
permitted  to  get  so  hot. 

The  grate  (Fig.  3)  in  stoves  holds  the  fuel  so  that  air  can 
flow  up  thru  it.  If  the  grate  is  clogged  with  ashes,  this  cannot 
happen.  The  grate  should  be  shaken  to  make  the  ashes  drop 
thru.  A  clean  grate  is  important  to  the  complete  combustion 
of  the  fuel.  Shaking  after  glowing  coals  begin  to  fall  is  a 
waste  of  fuel. 

When  an  attempt  to  shake  the  grate  is  made,  it  may  sud- 
denly refuse  to  move.  In  this  case,  something  may  have  lodged 
between  its  parts,  or  it  may  have  been  shaken  from  its  proper 
position.  Shaking  the  stove  too  hard  may  displace  the  grate. 
The  common  remedy  for  a  displaced  grate  is  to  let  the  fire 
go  out,  remove  all  ashes  and  cinders,  and  readjust  the  grate. 

Some  kinds  of  soft  coal  form  "clinkers,"  and  these  catch  in 
the  grate.  In  burning  fuel  that  makes  clinkers,  shake  the 
ashes  from  the  fire  several  times  a  day.  Remove  all  accumu- 
lations in  the  fire  box  daily.  Clinkers  are  made  from  sub- 
stances which  melt  and  recombine,  forming  a  different  mate- 
rial which  is  quite  hard  and  does  not  burn.  Constant  atten- 
tion to  the  fire  prevents  clinkers  from  forming  in  large  masses. 


CHAPTER  XI 
GAS,  ELECTRIC  AND  KEROSENE  HEATERS 

77.  Kinds  of  Gas  Heaters.  There  are  several  types  of 
gas  heaters — those  using  an  illuminating  flame  and  reflector, 
those  fitted  with  a  Bunsen  burner  and  an  asbestos  back,  and 
those  heating  water  in  a  device  like  a  radiator.  The  last  two 


FIG.  39.    Gas  heater  showing  air  mixer. 

burn  with  a  blue  flame.    All  gas  stoves  ought  to  be  fitted  with 
a  flue  for  discharging  the  products  of  combustion. 

78.  Bunsen  Burner  and  Asbestos-Back  Heater.  The 
burner  is  a  long  pipe  punctured  with  holes  extending  across 
the  stove.  There  is  an  opening  for  mixing  of  air  with  the  gas 
at  the  point  where  this  pipe  enters  the  stove,  and  a  valve  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  gas  (Fig.  39). 


78  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

79.  Lighting  Gas  Stoves.     To  light  the  stove,  open  the 
valve,  count  three,  and  apply  a  lighted  match  to  the  burner. 
Counting  three  gives  time  for  the  pipe  to  fill  with  gas,  so  that 
the  fire  will  not  flash  back  and  burn  in  the  air  mixer. 

80.  Care  of  Gas  Stoves.     The  only  care  that  this  stove 
needs  is  to  keep  it  polished  so  that  it  will  not  rust.     Keep  the 
burner  clean  of  dust  and  soot.     Be  sure  that  the  valve  is  en- 
tirely closed  when  the  gas  is  turned  off,  and  that  the  pipes  fit 
tight  at  all  connections  so  that  gas  cannot  leak  into  the  room. 

81.  Illuminating  Flame  and  Bright  Metal  Reflector 
Heaters.     These  heaters  are  used  with  manufactured  gas. 

•  •  They  burn  with  an  illuminat- 

ing flame  since  there  is  no 
device  for  mixing  air  with  the 
gas  as  it  enters  the  stove.  The 
bright  metal  reflector  not 
only  makes  .  an  attractive 
stove,  but  reflects  the  heat 
out  into  the  room.  Some 
stoves  are  made  with  tips  of 
aluminum  or  other  non-cor- 
rosive metal  over  the  open- 
FIG.  40.  Reflector  gas  heater. 

ings  in  the  burner  (Fig.  40). 

Gas  logs  are  a  type  of  gas  heaters  used  in  fireplaces  (Fig.  41). 

82.  Gas  Radiator  Heaters.     Gas  radiators  (Fig.  42)  are 
another  type  of  gas  heater.    The  radiator  is  a  coil  of  pipe. 
The  heating  unit  is  below  the  coil  and  works  like  any  other 
Bunsen  burner.     A  small  amount  of  water  is  kept  in  the 
pipes.    There  is  a  device  attached  to  the  radiator  to  auto- 
matically adjust  the  height  of  the  gas  fire  (A,  Fig.  42). 


GAS,  ELECTRIC  AND  KEROSENE  HEATERS 


79 


FIG.  41.   Gas  logs. 


83.  Management  of  Gas  Radiator.  Put  enough  water 
in  the  radiator  or  coil  of  pipe  to  fill  it  to  the  depth  of  one  inch. 
Keep  this  amount  of  water  in  it  at  all  times. 

Light  a  match,  turn  on  the  valve  which  lets  gas  flow  into 
the  burner,  wait  for  it  to  fill  with  gas,  and 
touch  the  match  to  the  burner. 

Most  of  these  heaters  are  fitted  with 
thermostats. 

In  about  thirty  minutes  after  lighting 
the  gas,  the  water  will  have  formed 
enough  steam  inside  the  radiator  to  auto- 
matically turn  the  valve  lowering  the  gas 
flame.  If  the  steam  pressure  falls  low,  the 
thermostat  will  permit  more  gas  to  flow 
into  the  radiator  by  automatically  opening  the  valve. 

There  is  a  safety  valve  attached  to 
the  side  of  the  radiator  which  opens  if 
the  automatic  device  fails  to  close  off 
the  gas  before  the  steam  pressure  in- 
side becomes  too  great. 

84.  Kerosene  Heaters.  Kero- 
sene heating  stoves  have  burners  like 
those  used  on  kerosene  cook  stoves. 
(See  Chapter  III.)  Surrounding,  or 
about,  the  burner  is  a  jacketed  air 
space.  Here  air  is  heated  and  rises 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  room  while 
fresh  air  from  the  lower  part  of  the  room  is  drawn  thru  the 
jacket.  Some  heat  is  also  given  off  by  radiation.  Fig.  43 
shows  a  picture  of  an  oil  heater. 

6 


FIG.  42.    Gas  radiators. 


80 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


FIG.  43.   Oil  heater. 


The  burners  of  these  stoves  should  be  cared  for  the  same 
way  as  the  ones  on  cooking  stoves.    The  stove  should  be  kept 

polished  and  free  from 
dust-  This  Prevents  it 
jjKliiHHI  from  ^sting.  Wipe  off  any 

kerosene  which  may  accu- 
^^          Jr  mulate  on  the  outside,  for 

it    makes    an    unpleasant 
odor. 

Take    care    in    moving 
kerosene  stoves  not  to  jar 
the  chimney  or  other  parts 
of  the  burner  out  of  place;  otherwise  the  stove  will  smoke. 

When  the  stove  is  lighted,  turn  the  burner  quite  low.     The 
flame   will   become   higher 
as  the  parts  of  the  stove 
become  heated. 

85.    Electric  Heaters. 

The  electric  heaters  (Fig.  44) 
are  composed  of  one  or 
more  coils  of  wire  thru  which 
the  electric  current  flows 
with  difficulty.  This  heats 
the  coils  so  hot  that  they 
glow.  A  reflector  throws 
the  heat  out  into  the  room. 
The  coil  and  reflector  are 
attached  to  a  pedestal. 
They  are  desirable  for  use 


FIG.  44.    Electric  heater. 


in  rooms  which  are  not  quite  warm  enough.     Care  must  be 


GAS,  ELECTRIC  AND  KEROSENE  HEATERS  81 

taken  to  avoid  getting  an  electric  shock  from  electric  heat- 
ers, as  from  any  other  electrical  appliances.  If  the  stove 
seems  to  be  out  of  order,  have  it  put  in  order  before  using. 
Take  care  not  to  touch  a  water  pipe  or  gas  pipe  at  the  same 
time  when  touching  the  heater  in  the  bathroom,  as  there  is 
a  possibility  of  getting  a  shock. 

86.     Acetylene  Heaters.    Acetylene  heaters  are  similar 
to  the  Bunsen  burner  and  asbestos-back  gas  heaters.    They 
are  provided  also  with  copper  side  reflectors.     They  are  used 
only  in  localities  where  gas  or  electricity  cannot  be  had. 
QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  II 

1.  What  are  the  essentials  in  heating  a  house  with  a  hot-air  furnace? 

2.  How  does  the  "pipeless"  furnace  differ  from  the  other  types? 

3.  Explain  the  circulation  of  .water  thru  a  hot-water  heating  system. 

4.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  expansion  tank?     Where  should  it  be 
located? 

5.  Describe  a  steam-heating  system. 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  managing  a  steam-heating  system? 

7.  What  precautions  should  be  taken    when    using    an    electric 
heater? 


PART  III 
LIGHTING  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  XII 
ELECTRIC  LIGHTS 

87.  Kinds  of  Electric  Lamps  in  Use.     The  electric 
lamps  on  the  market  now  are  either  tungsten  (also  called 
Mazda)  or  metallized  carbon  (called  gem  carbon)  lamps.    Of 
all  lighting  appliances,  electric  lamps  and  systems  are  most 
easily  cared  for.     If  properly  selected,  they  make  an  excellent 
light  from  the  standpoint  of  hygiene.     It  is  important  for 
every  one  to  know  enough  about  lighting  to  be  able  to  select 
proper  kinds  and  sizes  of  lamps. 

88.  Electrical  Measurements.     A  volt  is  the  unit  of 
electric  pressure  which  compares  with  the  pound  as  the  unit 
of  water  pressure. 

An  ampere  is  the  unit  of  electricity  flowing  thru  a  wire 
which  compares  to  the  gallon  as  the  unit  of  water  per  minute 
flowing  thru  a  pipe. 

A  watt  is  the  unit  of  electrical  power.  It  is  determined  by 
multiplying  the  volts  by  the  amperes. 

A  kilowatt  equals  1000  watts. 

A  kilowatt  hour  equals  1000  watt-hours. 

A  watt-hour  is  the  amount  of  energy  needed  by  a  device 
which  uses  one  watt  and  is  operated  for  one  hour.  For  ex- 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTS 


83 


ample,  a  25- watt  lamp  uses  25  watts',  and  if  it  is  operated  one 
hour,  it  uses  25-watt  hours  of  electricity. 

The  cost  of  burning  an  electric  lamp  is  the  number  of  watts 
marked  on  the  lamp  multiplied  by  the  hours  the  lamp  is 
burned,  and  then  translated  into  kilowatt  hours  and  multi- 
plied by  the  price  per  kilowatt  hour. 

89.  Carbon  Lamps.  Few  carbon  lamps  are  being  made 
now,  but  they  may  still  be  obtained  in  some  stores.  The  car- 
bon lamp  can  be  distinguished  from 
Mazda  lamps  (Fig.  45)  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  filament.  The  carbon 
lamp  gives  about  0.40  candles  of  light 
per  watt  of  electricity  consumed.  Car- 
bon lamps  burn,  making  a  yellow  or 
reddish  light,  and  consume  fully  twice 
as  much  current  as  Mazda  lamps  of 
the  same  candle  power. 


FIG.  45.   Direct  light. 


90.     Mazda  or  Tungsten  Lamps. 

Tungsten  lamps  are  the  ones  in  com- 
mon use.    They  give  0.80  to  1.00  can- 
dle of  light  to  one  watt  of  electricity  used.     They  have  a 
filament  of  tungsten  and  may  now  be  used  in  any  position. 
Less  electricity  is  required  to  bring  tungsten  to  a  glowing 
white  heat  than  other  materials  used  in  lamps. 

To  compare  the  brightness  of  two  lamps,  do  not  look  at  the 
filament,  but  hold  pieces  of  white  material  like  paper  at  an 
equal  distance  from  each  lamp  and  compare  the  brightness  of 
the  surfaces;  or  put  an  opaque  object  in  front  of  the  light  and 


84  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

let  a  shadow  be  cast  on  another  object.    The  brighter  light 
will  cast  a  heavier  shadow. 

When  substituting  a  new  tungsten  lamp  for  a  carbon  lamp, 
select  one  about  one-half  the  number  of  watts,  unless  more 
light  is  wanted.  In  houses,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  sub- 
stitute a  40-watt  Mazda  for  a  50-watt  gem  carbon  lamp,  thus 
saving  ten  watts  per  hour  and  getting  more  light. 

91.  Selecting  Lamps  for  a  Room.     There  are  so  many 
possibilities  for  the  use,  of  electricity  in  lighting  a  house,  that 
it  becomes  a  fine  art.    When  buying  lights  for  a  room,  con- 
sider (1)  the  size  of  the  room,  (2)  the  use  of  the  room,  and  (3) 
the  color  of  walls,  floors,  ceilings,  furnishings  and  decorations. 
For  lighting  purposes,  lamps  may  be  obtained  ranging  from 
10  or  less  to  more  than  100-candle  power. 

There  are  colored,  transparent  and  frosted  globes.  There 
are  reflectors  and  shades  of  various  colors  and  patterns.  To 
obtain  the  same  degree  of  illumination,  smaller  lamps  are 
needed  in  small  rooms  than  in  large  ones. 

92.  Effect  of  Color  Schemes  Upon  Illumination.  The 
color  of  the  walls  and  furnishings  makes  a  difference  in  the 
candle  power  required  to  give  a  certain  amount  of  light. 
Those  colors  which  absorb  the  most  light  require  the  higher 
candle  power,  and  those  reflecting  the  highest  per  cent  of 
light  require  the  lower  candle  power. 

Tho  frosted  globes  absorb  some  light,  they  diffuse  the  rest 
of  it.  They  dispense  with  the  annoyance  of  glare  from  lamps, 
and  are  useful  in  places  where  the  full  intensity  of  the  lamps 
is  not  required. 

The  light  absorbed  by  different  colors  varies  considerably, 
as  shown  by  the  accompanying  table: 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTS  85 

TABLE  SHOWING  ABSORPTION  OF  LIGHT 

PERCENTAGE 

OF  LIGHT 
COLOR  ABSORBED 

White ., 30 

Chrome  yellow 38 

Orange 50 

Clean  pine  wood 55 

Yellow  paper 60 

Yellow  paint  (clean) 60 

Light  pink  paper 64 

Dirty  pine  wood 80 

Dirty  yellow  paint •  •  •  •          80 

Emerald  green  paper 82 

Dark  brown  paper 87 

Vermilion  paper 88 

Blue  green  paper 88 

Cobalt  green  paper 88 

Deep  chocolate  paper 96 

93.  Distribution  of  Light.  Light  in  rooms  for  general 
use  should  be  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible  thruout  the  en- 
tire room.  Avoid  excessive  contrasts  of  brightness  and  dark- 
ness. Have  the  lamps  shaded  to  diffuse  the  light  so  that  no 
one  need  look  directly  at  the  filament.  When  working  by  a 
light,  do  not  put  the  lamp  very  close  to  the  material,  as  this 
produces  too  strong  contrasts  of  light  and  dark,  or,  when 
reading,  it  produces  too  much  reflection  from  the  white  parts 
of  the  paper,  which  is  trying  on  the  eyes. 

Direct  lighting  means  that  the  rays  from  the  lamp  go  di- 
rectly into  the  room  (Fig.  45).  Indirect  lighting  means  that 
the  rays  are  all  directed  toward  a  reflecting  surface  such  as  the 


86  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

ceiling  (Fig.  46).  From  here  they  are  reflected,  giving  an 
even  amount  of  light  to  other  parts  of  the  room.  When  di- 
rected toward  the  ceiling,  they  make  it  the  brightest  part  of 
the  room. 

A  semi-indirect  light  avoids  this  difficulty  (Fig.  47). 

In  diffused  lighting,  the  lamp  is  covered,  as  by  frosting,  so 
that  the  rays  of  light  are  broken  up  and  so  scattered  that  no 


FIG.  46.   Indirect  light. 

direct  ray  shines  into  the  eyes,  and  there  is  no  bright  spot  of 
light  in  the  rocm. 

When  costs  must  be  limited,  certain  decorative  effects  must 
be  weighed  for  their  value,  some  being  more  expensive  than 
others. 

City  lighting  plants  can  provide  current  for  any  number  of 
lamps  in  a  house  if  it  is  properly  wired.  If  more  lamps  are 
attached  than  the  wiring  will  carry,  and  all  are  turned  on,  the 
fuses  will  burn  out. 

Electric  plants  for  private  homes  (see  Sec.  271)  usually  fur- 
nish current  of  a  different  voltage  from  city  electric  plants, 
so  special  equipment  and  lamps  must  be  used  with  small 
plants. 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTS 


87 


Inquire  of  the  company  who  installed  the  wiring  or  electric 
system,  how  many  lights  and  other  devices  can  be  attached 
and  for  what  voltage  they  should  be  made. 


FlG.  47.   Semi-indirect  light. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


GAS  LIGHT 

94.  Construction  of  Mantles.  A  mantle  is  a  device 
made  of  thread  saturated  with  some  fireproof  material  like  a 
mixture  of  thorium  and  cerium  which  will  glow,  giving  off  a 
white  light  when  heated  hot.  The  mantle  (A  and  B,  Fig. 
48)  is  placed  over  the  burners  of  lamps 
using  liquid  or  gaseous  fuel.  The  gas 
is  mixed  with  air  so  that  it  burns 
with  a  blue  flame.  The  blue  flame 
gives  off  little  light,  but  it  does  not 
smoke  and  is  much  hotter  than  a 
yellow  flame.  When  a  mantle  is 
placed  over  the  blue  flame,  it  is  heat- 
ed with  less  fuel  consumption  than  is 
required  to  make  a  yellow  illuminat- 
ing flame.  The  light  from  the  glow 
of  the  mantle  is  steadier  and  whiter 
than  the  light  from  an  open  flame,  so 
that  it  is  more  hygienic. 

Mantles  are  made  in  different  pat- 
terns so  that  they  may  be  used  on  upright  and  inverted  burn- 
ers. The  inverted  mantle  throws  more  light  downward  than 
an  upright  mantle.  This  is  advantageous  in  lighting  a 
room,  for  most  of  the  light  is  wanted  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  room.  Mantles  can  be  used  on  lamps  burning  gas,  kero- 


FIG.  48.    Mantles. 


GAS  LIGHT 


89 


FIG.  48-a.    Adjusting  gas 
light. 


sene,  gasoline,  alcohol  and  acetylene  if  the  burners  are  made 
to  produce  a  blue  flame.     (See  Figs.  48  and  52.) 

95.  Care  of  Mantles.    Strong  jars  and  drafts  will  break 
mantles,  for  they  are  very  fragile.    The  explosion  caused  by 
burning  back  when  the  lamp  is  being  lighted  is  most  de- 
structive  to   mantles.     To    save 

mantles,  wait  until  the  lamp  has 
filled  with  gas  before  touching  the 
lighted  match  to  it. 

96.  Fixtures  for  Burning 
Gas.    Gas  will  burn  just  as  it 
escapes  from  a  pipe.    The  flame 
of  burning  gas  is  yellow  and  makes 

considerable  light.  In  order  to  secure  more  light  for  the 
amount  of  gas  burned,  put  a  tip  on  the  end  of  the  pipe,  with 
a  long,  narrow  slit  in  the  top  to  spread 
the  flame.  These  are  usually  lava  tips. 
Natural  gas  gives  very  little  light  when 
burned  in  an  open  flame.  Always  burn  it 
in  mantle  lamps.  Its  heating  value  is  1000 
B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot.  When  burned  in  a 
well-adjusted  mantle  lamp,  natural  gas 
will  give  about  15  candle  hours  per  cubic 
foot.  The  heating  value  of  manufactured 
gas  is  rated  at  600  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot. 
It  makes  a  fair  light  when  used  in  an  open 
flame  burner.  The  yellow  flame  of  burn- 
ing gas  makes  considerable  smoke,  even  when  carefully 
adjusted.  It  gives  four  times  as  much  light  and  no  smoke 
when  it  is  burned  in  a  good  mantle  lamp. 


FIG.  49.  Bunsen 
burner  for  gas 
light. 


90 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


In  the  special  burner  of  the  mantle  lamp,  the  gas  is  mixed 
with  air  so  that  it  will  burn  with  a  blue  flame  (Fig.  49).  A 
blue  flame  is  not  good  for  lighting,  but  when  a  mantle  is 
placed  over  the  flame,  it  becomes  heated,  glowing  hot.  Since 
the  mantle  is  made  of  a  material  which  gives  off  a  white  glow, 
it  lights  the  room  with  a  steady  light  which  is  far  better  than 
the  flickering  light  of  the  open  flame  (Fig.  48-a). 

97.  Adjustment.     See'  that  the  ports  thru  which  air  is 

drawn  into  the  lamp  are  open  as  wide 
as  needed  to  give  a  clear,  smokeless 
flame  without  firing  back.  Some 
lamps  are  fitted  with  a  screw  beside 
the  cocks  to  regulate  the  amount  of 
gas  flowing  into  the  lamp.  It  should 
be  adjusted  so  that  no  more  gas  flows 
into  the  lamp  than  is  needed  to  get  as 
bright  a  glow  as  possible  from  the 
mantle.  Regulate  the  gas  flow  by 
closing  the  valve  attached  to  this 
screw  until  the  mantle  decreases  per- 
ceptibly in  brightness,  and  then  slowly 

opening  it  until  the  mantle  becomes  bright.     Gas  companies 

often  adjust  lamps  for  their  customers. 

98.  Care  of  Lamps.     Clean  the  burners  if  they  become 
sooted.     Replace  mantles  if  they  are  broken. 

99.  Lighting  a  Gas  Light.     When  lighting  a  lamp,  turn 
on  the  gas,  count  three,  and  then  light  the  lamp.     Counting 
three  gives  time  for  the  burner  to  fill  with  gas  and  prevents 
burning  back  with  an  explosion.     Mantles  are  very  delicate 


r*n  r\ 


FIG.  50.    Open -flame 
acetylene  burner. 


GAS  LIGHT 


91 


and  easily  broken  by  jars  or  strong  drafts.     Burning  back 
may  break  the  mantle. 

Burning  back  means  that  the  gas  ignites  at  the  opening 
where  it  should  be  mixing  with  the  air  instead  of  at  the  tip  of 
the  burner.  This  happens  when  the  l?mp  is  lighted  before  it 
becomes  filled  with  gas,  or  when  there  is  too  much  air  mixed 
with  the  gas. 

100.  Cold-Process  Gasoline  Gas.  It  is  more  econom- 
ical to  use  cold-process  gasoline  gas  with  a  mantle  lamp  than 
an  open-flame  burner  for  lighting. 
Be  sure  to  use  the  burners  made 
especially  for  this  kind  of  gas. 
The  lamps  are  managed  like  all 
others. 


FIG.  50-a.  Showing  electric 
lighting  device  for  acety- 
lene burner. 


101.  Acetylene  Lamps.  Open- 
flame  burners  are  used  for  acety- 
lene gas  because  no  mantle  burn- 
er has  been  constructed  which 
will  operate  reliably  with  this  rich 
gas. 

Acetylene  gas  gives  about  ten  times  as  much  light  per  cubic 
foot  as  manufactured  gas  burned  in  an  open  flame.  The 
burners  require  little  care.  Sometimes  the  holes  in  burners 
become  stopped,  and  they  should  be  cleaned  out  with  a  fine 
pointed  instrument  like  a  needle.  When  they  do  not  work 
well,  it  pays  to  replace  the  old  tips  with  new  ones. 

Acetylene  gas  burners  are  constructed  so  that  a  very  fine 
spray  of  gas  strikes  another  fine  spray,  which,  when  ignited, 
makes  a  broad  flame.  This  flame,  which  is  almost  white, 
gives  off  light.  The  burners  appear  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  50. 


92  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

102.  Care  of  Burners  of  Acetylene  Lamps.  Keep  the 
two  holes  open.  Clean  them  with  a  large  needle.  See  that 
there  are  no  leaks  about  the  burners  or  pipes.  If  these  are 
found,  fill  with  white  lead  or  some  similar  substance,  and 
tighten  connections.  If  this  does  not  suffice,  the  trouble 
should  be  referred  to  a  plumber.  Fig.  50-a  shows  an  acety- 
lene burner. 

Acetylene  lamp  mantles  can  be  used  only  with  acetylene 
which  is  under  high  pressure.  Therefore,  they  cannot  be 
used  with  all  plants.  The  special  burner  for  mixing  air  with 
the  acetylene  to  make  it  burn  with  a  blue  flame  must  be  used 
with  the  mantle. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
KEROSENE  LAMPS 

103.  Construction  of  Kerosene  Lamps.    A  kerosene 
lamp  consists  of  a  bowl,  a  burner,  a  wick  and  a  chimney. 

In  the  ordinary  lamp,  the  bowl  for  holding  the  oil  is  placed 
below  the  burner  (Fig.  51).    The  wick  carries  the  oil  from 
the  bowl  into  the  burner  by 
capillary  attraction  —  one  end 
being  in  the  oil  and  the  other  in 
the  burner. 

The  burner,  which  has  holes 
in  it  to  let  in  air,  holds  the 
wick  so  that  only  the  oil  reach- 
ing the  top  burns.  The  area 
and  shape  of  the  flame  depends  FlchimneLsampS 
upon  the  form  of  the  top  sur- 
face of  the  wick.  The  glass  chimney  is  used  to  cause  an 
air  current  thru  the  burner  and  to  protect  the  flame  from  out- 
side drafts.  A  screw  moves  the  wick  thru  the  burner.  If 
the  wick  is  too  small,  the  fire  may  burn  back  thru  the  burner 
and  ignite  the  oil  in  the  bowl.  It  is  important  that  a  wick 
fit  the  burner.  If  the  chimney  is  too  short  or  broken,  the 
lamp  will  smoke  (A,  B,  Fig.  51). 

104.  Management  of  Kerosene  Lamps.    When  the 
lamp  smokes,  it  is  wasting  fuel.    Smoke  is  incompletely  burnt 
fuel.     The  oil  in  the  lamp  should  be  clean.     It  should  never 
be  mixed  with  gasoline  or  other  more  explosive  oils. 

Fill  the  bowl  each  day  the  lamp  is  used  to  within  one-half 


94  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

inch  of  the  top.    A  full  bowl  helps  to  make  a  safe  lamp. 

Put  the  chimney  on  the  lamp  so  that  it  fits  in  its  holder. 
Keep  it  clean  and  bright.  Keep  the  wick  clean  and  trimmed 
evenly.  See  that  it  entirely  fills  the  opening  thru  the  burner. 
This  prevents  the  fire  from  burning  back  down  the  burner  and 
igniting  the  oil  in  the  bowl. 

Oil  will  not  pass  up  a  wick  which  fits  too  tight.  Do  not  cut 
a  wick  to  trim  it,  but  keep  the  charred  part  scraped  or 
brushed  off  even  with  the  top  of  the  slit  in  the  burner.  A 
burnt  match  is  useful  for  this  purpose. 

105.  Lighting  a  Kerosene  Lamp.     When  lighting  a 

lamp,  be  sure  it  is  in  order  and  that  any 
openings  to  the  bowl  are  closed.  Lift 
the  chimney,  turn  the  screw  to  raise  the 
wick  about  one-eighth  inch  above  the 
slit.  Touch  a  lighted  match  to  the  wick, 
adjust  the  chimney,  and,  lastly,  move  the 
wick  up  or  down  until  it  burns  clear 
and  bright  without  smoking.  After  the 
burner  becomes  warm,  the  flame  may 

FIG.  52.  Mantle  for  grow  higher  and  smoke.  Do  not  leave  a 
kerosene  lamp.  newly-lighted  lamp  unwatched.  After 

the  lamp  is  heated  and  adjusted,  it  should  burn  with  a  flame 

of  even  height. 

106.  To  Extinguish  a  Lamp.     Turn  the  wick  down  un- 
til it  is  slightly  below  the  top  of  the  slit.     Do  not  turn  too  far. 
It  will  then  go  out  of  itself,  or  a  slight  puff  of  air  will  extin- 
guish it.     This  is  safer  and  will  smoke  the  chimney  less  than 
attempting  to  blow  out  the  full  flame. 

107.  Care  of  Lamps.     Keep  the  inside  and  outside  of 


KEROSENE  LAMPS  95 

bowl  and  chimney  clean.  Wipe  all  soot  from  the  burners. 
Trim  the  wick  each  day  the  lamp  is  used.  Fill  the  bowl  with 
oil  to  within  one-half  inch  of  the  top.  Get  new  wicks  when 
the  old  ones  become  dirty. 

108.  Kerosene  Mantle  Lamps.  Kerosene  mantle  lamps 
(Fig.  52)  give  three  to  four  times  as  much  light  per  unit  of  oil 
as  the  ordinary  kerosene  lamp.  Many  mantle  lamps  on  the 
market  are  unreliable.  Care,  therefore,  should  be  taken  to 
give  the  lamp  a  trial  before  investing  so  as  to  be  sure  to  get  a 
good  one. 

The  care  and  lighting  of  mantle  lamps  differ  so  much  that 
the  directions  must  be  furnished  by  the  manufacturer  and 
should  be  followed  with  exactness. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ALCOHOL  AND  GASOLINE  LAMPS 

109.  Classification  of  Lamps.  Since  the  principle  of 
Operation  is  the  same  for  most  alcohol  and  gasoline  lamps, 
they  will  be  considered  together. 

These  lamps  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — gravity 
lamps  and  pneumatic,  or  pressure,  lamps. 
110.     Gravity  Lamps.     Gravity  lamps 
have  the  tank  elevated  above  the  burner 
so  that  the  force  of  gravity  brings  the  fluid 
to  the  burner.     It  is  usually  a  little  to  one 
side  of  the  burner  so  that  it  cannot  become 
heated  by  it.    A  pipe  from  the  tank  leads 
downward  and  either  over  the  chimney  or 
under  the  burner,  where  it  will  be  heated 
by  the  flame  of  the  lamp.    When  heated, 
it  changes  the  gasoline  or  the  alcohol  to 
The  pipe  carries  the  gas  on  to  a 
point  where  it  is  mixed  with  air  before  it 
flows  into  the  burner  (Fig.  53). 

111.  Lighting  the  Gravity  Lamp.  In  order  to  light 
these  lamps,  the  generator  must  first  be  heated  so  as  to  make 
the  gas.  After  this  has  once  been  done,  the  heat  of  the  lamp 
keeps  the  generator  hot.  As  soon  as  the  gas  is  formed,  light 
the  lamp. 

These  lamps  are  furnished  with  mantles.  The  flame  is  blue 
and,  consequently,  gives  out  very  little  light,  but  much  heat. 


FIG.  53.    Gasoline  gas 
or  alcohol  lamp. 


ALCOHOL  AND  GASOLINE  LAMPS 


97 


The  mantle  covering  the  flame  is  heated  to  glowing  white 
heat  and  gives  off  much  light  of  a  white  color/ 

112.     Pressure  Lamps.    Pressure  lamps  (Figs.  54  and 
55)  have  a  strong  tank  which  holds  air  and  fuel,  whether  alco- 
hol or  gasoline.    Air  is  pumped  into  the  tank  so  that  it  presses 
on  the  fuel  with  force  enough 
to  push  the  fuel  up  the  pipe 


FIG.  54.    Details  of  gasoline 
lamp. 


FIG.    55.   Pneumatic  gasoline 
lamp. 


leading  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the  generator.  The 
air  cannot  get  into  the  pipe  so  long  as  there  is  fuel  which  is 
heavier  than  air  in  the  tank,  because  the  pipe  which  leads  to 
the  burner  starts  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

The  generator  for  changing  the  liquid  fuel  to  gas  is  placed 
between  the  burners  of  the  lamp,  of  which  there  are  usually 
two.  After  the  generator  has  been  heated,  the  lighted  lamps 
keep  the  generator  hot.  The  gas  being  very  light,  continues 


98  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

to  rise.  It  passes  thru  a  place  where  it  is  mixed  with  air,  and 
goes  on  into  the  burner,  where  it  is  ignited.  If  the  lamp 
burns  low,  more  air  must  be  pumped  into  the  tank  to  force  up 
the  gasoline  or  alcohol.  When  all  the  fluid  has  been  burned, 
the  lamp  will  go  out,  since,  then,  only  the  air  which  is  under 
pressure  in  the  tank  will  be  coming  into  the  burner. 

Extinguish  the  lamp  by  turning  off  the  supply  of  fuel  to  the 
generator.  To  light  these  lamps,  first  heat  the  generator,  as 
directed  for  the  particular  lamp  in  use,  and  then  light  the 
burners.  Detailed  directions  cannot  be  given  here,  as  they 
differ  with  different  lamps. 

113.  Gasoline  Lamps  with  Wicks.     There  are  some 
gasoline  lamps  made  with  wicks  which  help  conduct  the  oil 
into  the  burner,  where  it  is  changed  to  gas  by  the  heat  from 
the  lamp,  mixed  with  air  and  burned  in  a  mantle.  The  flame, 
from  a  mixture  of  alcohol  or  gasoline  and  air,  is  blue  and  gives 
off  little  light,  but  much  heat.     It  is  used  with  a  mantle. 

114.  Alcohol  Lamps  with  Wicks.    The  wick  of  one 
type  of  alcohol  lamp  conducts  the  alcohol  up  thru  a  round 
tube  which  it  completely  fills.     The  tube  prevents  the  fire 
from  burning  down  into  the  bowl  of  the  lamp.     Alcohol 
makes  a  very  hot  and  almost  smokeless  flame,  even  when 
little  air  is  present.    The  mantle  is  put  over  the  flame,  and, 
when  heated,  gives  a  good  light.     Other  ordinary  fuels  cannot 
be  used  on  so  simple  a  lamp  because  they  would  smoke  the 
mantle. 

115.  Lighting  Alcohol  or  Gasoline  Lamps.    Heat  the 
conducting  pipe  at  the  point  where  the  fuel  is  to  be  changed  to 
gas.     (Directions  for  this  come  with  each  lamp,  and  they  dif- 
fer considerably.)     After  being  heated  sufficiently,  the  valve 


ALCOHOL  AND  GASOLINE  LAMPS  99 

leading  to  the  burner  is  opened  and  the  burner  lighted  with  a 
match  or  torch.  Use  clean  gasoline  for  these  lamps,  un- 
mixed with  water  or  other  substances. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  III 

1 .  Are  there  any  differences  in  the  electric  light  globes  on  the  market  ? 
If  so,  in  what  ways  do  they  differ?     How  do  these  differences  affect  the 
lighting  power  of  the  globes? 

2.  What  influence  has  the  size  and  decoration  of  the  room  on  the 
brilliancy  of  light  from  a  given  lamp? 

3.  How  should  the  light  in  a  living-room  be  distributed  ? 

4.  What  are  the  differences  in  direct,  semi-direct  and  indirect  light- 
ing? 

5.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  mantle  for  a  gas  or  kerosene  lamp? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  in  burners  to  be  used  with  and  without 
mantles? 

7.  How  is  the  light  from  a  lamp  measured? 

8.  Which  lamp  gives  the  greatest  candle  power  of  light  for  the 
amount  of  fuel  used — the  one  with  or  the  one  without  a  mantle? 


PART  IV 
COOLING  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  XVI 
REFRIGERATORS 

116.  Principles  of  Refrigeration.  Refrigerators  (Fig. 
56)  are  designed  to  prevent  the  rapid  spoiling  of  food  by  keep- 
ing it  too  cool  for  the  rapid  growth  of  bacteria.  They  vary 


FIG.  56.   Refrigerator. 

considerably  in  their  efficiency,  according  to  their  construc- 
tion and  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  managed.  To  preserve 
food  and  to  save  ice,  the  housewife  must  understand  her  refrig- 
erator, and  she  must  choose  a  good  one.  There  is  as  much 
difference  in  the  efficiency  with  which  housewives  manage 
their  refrigerators  as  there  are  differences  in  refrigerators. 


REFRIGERATORS      \       J  \  ;   101 


A  series  of  experiments  were  cond  ucted*rwr£h*  a 
different  makes  of  refrigerators.  When  the  outside  tempera- 
ture was  between  80  and  90  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  when  the 
refrigerators  were  kept  full  of  ice,  it  was  found  that  the  tem- 
peratures in  different  refrigerators  varied  between  45  and  60 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  When  the  refrigerators  were  only  partly 
full  of  ice,  their  temperatures  rose  several  degrees. 

The  refrigerators  which  held  a  temperature  of  45  degrees 
when  filled  with  ice,  or  with  100  pounds,  used  25  pounds  of  ice 
each  in  three  days,  while  in  the  same  three  days,  the  ones 
which  could  maintain  only  a  temperature  as  low  as  65  de- 
grees, used  50  pounds  each.  The  warmer  the  inside  of  a  ref- 
rigerator, the  faster  the  ice  melts. 

In  general,  a  refrigerator  which  maintains  a  low  tempera- 
ture is  cheapest  to  operate.  The  refrigerator  should  be  kept 
full  of  ice  exposed  so  that  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  cir- 
culating within  the  refrigerator.  The  refrigerator  which  does 
not  hold  a  low  temperature  will  not  only  use  more  ice,  but  be 
less  efficient  in  keeping  food. 

117.  The  Construction  of  Refrigerators.    The  con- 
struction of  a  refrigerator  should  be  such  that  it  may  be  kept 
clean.    There  should  be  no  cracks  and  corners  to  catch  dirt 
and  make  breeding  places  for  molds  and  bacteria. 

118.  Lining  Refrigerators.     The  best  linings  for  refrig- 
erators are  porcelain,  porcelain  enamel,  or  glass  for  the  more 
expensive  ones,  and  galvanized  iron  or  zinc  for  the  less  ex- 
pensive ones.    The  shelves  are  usually  made  of  heavy  wire  or 
of  bent  metal.    The  latter  should  be  constructed  so  that  they 
can  be  thoroly  cleaned. 


102 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


119.  Insulation  of  Refrigerators.  The  more  complete 
the  insulation  of  a  refrigerator,  the  more  efficient  it  will  be. 
Different  kinds  of  material,  as  well  as  dead-air  spaces,  are 

used  for  this  purpose.  The  top, 
as  well  as  the  bottom,  must  be 
insulated.  Materials  which  are 
likely  to  crack  or  settle  down 
and  leave  uninsulated  spaces 
should  not  be  used.  Because 
sawdust  settles,  it  is  not  satis- 
factory. There  are  felts,  papers 
and  other  materials  which  are 
good.  If  the  refrigerator  is  not 
water-tight  and  the  insulating 
material  absorbs  water,  it  will 

FIG.  57.  Diagram  showing  cir-  lose  its  efficiency  for  insulation. 
culation  in  a  refrigerator.  Circulation    in    Re_ 


frigerators.  The  better  the  circulation  in  a  refrigerator, 
the  more  efficient  it  will  be.  The  air  in  the  refrigerator  must 
be  free  to  circulate  over  the  ice.  As  it  cools,  it  should  drop 
to  the  bottom  of  the  ice  box.  When  it  warms,  it  will  rise  and 
be  displaced  by  fresh  falling  cold  air.  It  should  be  free  to  rise 
to  the  top  of  the  refrigerator  and  from  there  pass  into  the  ice 
chamber  and  over  the  ice  to  be  cooled  again  (Fig.  57).  When 
the  ice  always  melts  unevenly  and  in  the  same  relative 
place  —  that  is,  more  on  the  side  or  bottom  —  it  indicates 
poor  circulation  in  the  refrigerator. 

121.  Drip  from  Melting  Ice.  There  should  be  a  pan 
under  the  ice  to  catch  the  drip  from  the  melting  ice,  and  a 
drip  pipe  to  carry  it  out  of  the  refrigerator  (Fig.  57).  If  the 


REFRIGERATORS  103 

drip  pipe  passes  into  a  pan  set  under  the  refrigerator,  the  pan 
should  be  emptied  so  that  it  will  not  overflow.  The  water  in 
the  pan  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  stagnant. 

If  this  pipe  passes  to  a  drain,  it  should  not  be  attached  to 
the  drain,  but  drip  into  it.  The  small  amount  of  fresh  air  pass- 
ing up  the  drip  pipe  from  the  room  is  advantageous.  Because 
some  air  does  flow  thru  here,  the  drip  pipe  and  the  drain  pipe 
must  be  clean  and  free  from  gases  and  odors. 

The  drip  pipe  should  be  straight  and  free  from  places  in 
which  dirt  may  collect.  It  must  be  removable,  so  that  it  can 
be  cleaned.  The  doors  of  the  refrigerator  must  shut  so  tightly 
that  frost  or  dew  will  not  form  about  their  edges  on  a  hot  day. 

122.  Arrangement  of  Food  in  the  Ice  Box.     Ice  boxes 
are  usually  cooler  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.    Do  not  put 
food  in  the  ice  chamber  because  this  necessitates  opening  the 
door  and  wastes  ice.    Do  not  put  papers  or  flat  boxes  on  the 
shelves  which  will  interfere  with  the  circulation  of  air  in  the 
refrigerator. 

123.  Filling  and  Care  of  the  Ice  Box.     The  housewife 
must  open  the  doors  of  the  ice  box  as  seldom  as  possible,  and 
close  them  quickly.     Do  not  cut  off  the  circulation  of  air 
from  the  ice  by  wrapping  it  in  a  blanket  or  newspapers.     It 
cannot  do  its  work  then.    The  ice  box  is  kept  cold  by  the 
gradual  melting  of  the  ice.    The  ice  melts  fastest  as  the  tem- 
perature of  the  ice  box  rises.     Covering  the  ice  may  keep  it 
from  melting,  but  it  will  also  allow  the  refrigerator  to  get 
warm,  and  so,  whatever  is  gained  in  saving  ice  at  first,  will  be 
lost  at  the  higher  temperature  and  in  cooling  the  box  again. 
Steady  melting  does  the  most  good. 


104  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

The  shelves  and  drain  pipe  should  be  removable,  and  these 
and  the  refrigerator  should  be  washed  and  thoroly  scalded 
once  in  every  two  weeks. 

There  is  a  saving  in  planning  to  open  the  refrigerator  as 
little  as  possible.  The  filling  of  the  ice  box  with  a  large  piece 
of  ice  two  or  three  times  a  week,  rather  than  with  a  small 
piece  every  day,  is  more  economical. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
ICELESS  REFRIGERATORS;  WATER  COOLERS 

124.  Comparative  Efficiency  of  Iceless  Refrigerators. 

In  some  localities,  where  it  is  difficult  to  get  ice  often  enough 
to  pay  for  having  a  refrigerator,  other  devices  have  to  be  de- 
pended upon  for  keeping  food  cool.  ,  Except  when  cold  run- 
ning water  can  be  used  in  coolers,  they  do 
not  take  the  place  of  refrigerators,  because 
they  cannot  maintain  the  low  tempera- 
ture of  a  good  refrigerator.  As  a  rule, 
the  best  of  the  makeshifts  are  about  on 
a  par  with  the  poorer  refrigerators.  They 
are  very  useful  in  emergencies. 

125.  Iceless   Refrigerator.    One   of 

these  devices  is  called  the  iceless  refriger-  FIG.  58.  Iceless  re- 
ator  (Fig.  58) .  It  depends  upon  the  evap-  f  rigerator- 
oration  of  water  to  make  it  cool.  Water  will  evaporate 
sufficiently  fast  to  cool  a  refrigerator  enough  to  be  of  value 
only  in  a  dry,  hot,  breezy  place.  Under  the  most  ideal  con- 
dition, an  iceless  refrigerator  may  hold  as  low  a  temperature 
as  65  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when  the  thermometer  is  register- 
ing above  90  degrees. 

This  refrigerator  consists  of  a  cloth-covered  frame  and  a 
device  for  keeping  the  cloth  moistened  with  fresh  water. 
Since  wind  or  a  good  circulation  of  air  helps  in  the  evapora- 
tion of  water,  the  iceless  refrigerator  must  be  placed  where 


106  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

breezes  may  reach  it,  and  it  should  be  anchored  so  that  it  will 
not  blow  away. 

An  iceless  refrigerator  may  be  made  from  a  rectangular 
frame  of  wood,  to  which  heavy  canton  flannel  is  buttoned  or 
tacked.  On  the  top  of  this  should  be  placed  a  pan  of  water 
with  strips  of  cloth  extending  from  the  water  to  the  covering 
of  the  frame.  This  will  conduct  the  water  from  the  pan  out 
onto  the  cloth.  The  number  of  strips  of  cloth  regulate  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  water  is  car- 
ried to  the  sides  of  the  refrigerator. 
The  food  is  set  inside  (Fig.  58.)  The 
refrigerator  should  be  placed  in  a  shady 
\  /  spot  where  the  breezes  can  strike  it. 

i '       Iceless  refrigerators  must  be  kept  clean, 

FlcooUngf?oed!Ce  f°r     and  the  covering  of  cloth  should  be 

washed  occasionally. 

Some  iceless  refrigerators  are  enclosed  in  a  chimney-like 
closet  built  on  the  house,  the  cold  air  coming  in  at  the  bot- 
tom and  being  drawn  upward  by  the  natural  draft  of  the 
chimney-like  structures.  This  draft  hastens  the  evaporation 
of  the  water.  Such  refrigerators  are  expensive  and  less  satis- 
factory than  ice  ones. 

126.  Small  Cooler.    A  few  things  may  be  kept  cool, 
like  a  bottle  of  milk  and  a  small  dish  of  butter,  by  setting 
them  in  a  shallow  pan  of  water  and  covering  them  with  a  flan- 
nel cloth  which  comes  down  into  the  water  and  so  remains 
moist  (Fig.  59).    The  evaporation  of  the  water  from  the  flan- 
nel cools  the  food  somewhat  below  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  air/ 

127.  Covered  Pail.     Another  device  is  a  metal  pail  (Fig. 


ICELESS  REFRIGERATORS;  WATER  COOLERS        107 


60)  covered  with  a  heavy  layer  of  cloth  and  a  pan  set  on  top  of 
the  cover.  Into  the  pan  is  put  some  water  and  strips  of  cloth 
to  conduct  out  the  water.  This  may  be  hung  in  the  kitchen 
window  if  it  is  shaded.  The  cover  and  the 
strips  must  be  secured  so  that  they  will  not 
blow  off. 

128.  Unglazed   Earthenware.     Un- 
glazed  earthenware  pitchers  and  jugs  make 
excellent  water  coolers.    The  water  is  put  in 
them,  and,  as  the  container  is  porous,  a  small 
amount  filters  thru  the  earthenware,  and,  as 
it  reaches  the  surface  and  air,  it  evaporates, 
cooling  the  remaining  water. 

129.  Cooling   with   Running   Water. 
A  very  little  stream  of  water  from  a  faucet 


FIG.  60.  Cov- 
ered pail  for 
cooling  food. 


will  cool  the  baby's  milk  and  keep  it  from  souring.  The 
bottle  should  be  set  in  a  pan  of  water  which  is  constantly 
renewed  by  the  small  stream  running 
from  the  faucet.  (Fig.  61.)  This 
method  of  cooling  should  be  used  only 
in  homes  supplied  with  water  from  a 
spring  or  in  an  emergency.  Under 
most  circumstances,  it  is  too  extrava- 
gant a  method  of  keeping  food  to  be 
recommended.  In  cities  it  should  be 
prohibited  because  it  might  cause  too 
great  a  drain  on  the  city  water  supply. 
A  larger  device  used  for  cooling  milk  is  a  tank  of  running 
water  (Figs.  61-a-6).  The  water  flowing  thru  this  tank 
commonly  flows  into  another  tank  used  for  the  watering  of 


FIG.  61.  Cooling  with 
running  water. 


108 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


stock.  Cans  with  inverted  covers  like  those  illustrated  are 
waterproof,  because  the  air  is  caught  inside  them  so  that  it 
cannot  get  out  for  the  water  to  replace  it.  It  does  not  require 

a  large  stream  of  water  to  re- 
new that  in  the  tank  and 
keep  it  cool.  The  efficiency 
of  this  device  depends  en- 


FIG.  61-a.   Cross-section  of  cool- 
ing tank. 


tirely  upon  having  a  supply 
of  cold  water  available. 

130.  Refrigerating  Plants.     Refrigerating  plants  are 
sometimes  installed  in  private  dwellings.    These  consist  of  a 
motor  and  a  machine  for  compressing  gas,  a  chamber  which 
is  to  be  cooled,  and  sometimes  coils  of  pipe  containing  brine. 

When  the  gas — for  example,  am- 
monia or  carbon  dioxide  —  is  com- 
pressed, it  heats  the  pump  which  com- 
presses it.  That  is,  when  a  liquid  or 
gas  is  being  compressed,  it  gives  up 
heat.  When  a  liquid  or  gas  expands,  it 
takes  heat  from  somewhere.  In  refrig- 
erating plants,  the  expanding  gas  is 
made  to  take  the  heat  either  directly 
from  the  refrigerator  or  storeroom,  or  from  brine  which  is 
then  used  for  cooling  the  refrigerator  or  room.  Refrigerat- 
ing plants  require  the  same  care  as  pumps,  motors  and  re- 
frigerators. 

131.  Water  Coolers.    Since  ice  is  not  always  pure,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  cooling  devices  which  do  not  permit  it  to 
come  into  direct  contact  with  the  water.    One  type  of  water 
cooler  consists  of  a  can  set  in  an  ice  box  with  a  pipe  leading 


FIG.  61-6.    Cooling 
tank. 


ICELESS  REFRIGERATORS;  WATER  COOLERS       109 

to  the  outside  so  that  the  box  does  not  have  to  be  opened 
every  time  that  water  is  wanted  (Fig.  62).  This  can  should 
be  made  so  that  it  may  be  removed,  washed  and  scalded. 
Another  cooler  consists  of  a  tank  or  water  bottle  placed  on 
the  outside  of  a  refrigerator  or  box  of  ice  with  a  pipe  leading 


FIG.  62.   Water  cooler  con-  FlG.  63.  Sectional  view  of 

taming  water  tank.  water  cooler. 

thru  the  refrigerator  or  box  of  ice  (Fig.  63).  The  water  flow- 
ing thru  the  pipe  is  cooled.  The  pipe  ends  at  the  outside  of 
the  ice  box  with  a  faucet  to  let  out  the  water.  This  cooler 
cools  only  the  water  flowing  into  the  pipe  instead  of  the  entire 
tank  of  water. 

132.  Care  of  Water  Coolers.  Put  only  clean,  pure 
water  into  the  coolers,  and  keep  them  clean  by  flushing  them 
out  occasionally  with  boiling  water. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
FANS  AND  VENTILATORS 

133.  Selecting  a  Fan.  With  the  coming  of  electricity 
into  the  home,  fans  have  become  practical  home  devices.  Do 
not  buy  a  fan  or  other  electrical  device  without  ascertaining 
whether  the  current  is  direct  or  alternating,  and  what  voltage 
is  needed  to  run  it.  Most  city  homes  are  now  supplied  with 
current  ranging  between  105  and  115  volts,  so  most  fans  are 


FIG.  64.  Blower.  FIG.  65.   Stationary  fan. 

made  for  that.    Fans  will  run  on  a  small  wire  like  that  used 
for  lighting. 

134.  The  Construction  of  the  Fan  in  Common  Use. 
A  motor  turns  the  fan.  There  is  a  regulator  on  some  fans,  so 
that  they  can  be  run  at  different  rates  of  speed.  Oil  cups  are 
important  parts  of  fans.  When  a  new  fan  is  purchased,  these 
cups  are  full  of  oil.  The  oil  will  last  for  many  months,  but  if 
an  old  fan  heats  and  sparks  while  being  run,  have  an  elec- 
trician examine  it  to  see  if  all  the  parts  are  in  order  and  there 


FANS  AND  VENTILATORS 


111 


is  a  supply  of  oil.    Figs.  64,  65  and  66  show  types  of  fans  in 
common  use. 

135.    Ventilator.    A  hood  (Fig.  67)  with  a  pipe  leading 
into  the  chimney,  placed  over  a  cook  stove,  will  conduct  hot 


FIG.  66.    Movable  electric  fan. 


FIG.  67.  Stove  ventilator. 


air  and  steam  up  the  chimney.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
warm  air  rises  and  cold  air  comes  in  to  take  its  place.  An 
open  skylight  over  a  cook  stove,  also,  makes  an  excellent  ven- 
tilator and  cooling  device  for  kitchens. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  IV 

1.  How  may  refrigerators  be  judged  for  efficiency? 

2.  What  are  the  essentials  of  a  good  refrigerator? 

3.  How  is  an  iceless  refrigerator  cooled?     Under  what  conditions  is 
it  useful? 

4.  What  may  be  the  matter  with  an  electric  fan  when  it  heats  and 
sparks? 


PARTY 
WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL. 

CHAPTER  XIX 
PUMPS  AND  WATER  FILTERS 

136.  Suction  Pumps.    A  pump  is  a  device  for  lifting 
water.    The  pumps  in  common  use  work  on  the  principle 
that  water  which  is  under  the  pressure  of  air  will  rise  to  fill  a 
vacuum  or  a  partial  vacuum.    The  pump  is  composed  of  a 
combination  of  valves  and  a  piston  for  forcing  the  air  out  of 
the  pipe  to  allow  the  water  from  below  to  be  forced  into  it.  A 
valve  catches  the  water  as  it  starts  to  flow  back.    The  weight 
of  the  water  holds  the  valve  closed. 

An  outlet  above  the  piston  permits  the  water  to  flow  into  a 
tank  or  sink  when  the  piston  is  again  lifted  to  make  a  new 
vacuum  and  draw  more  water  (Fig.  68). 

137.  Care  of  Pumps.     The  leather  or  material  forming 
the  piston  must  be  kept  moist,  or  it  will  shrink  and  leak. 
When  it  becomes  worn  and  old,  it  must  be  renewed.     It  is  not 
a  difficult  task  to  put  new  packing  on  a  small  suction  pump. 
To  do  this,  remove  the  pin  attaching  the  piston  to  the  handle. 
Lift  out  the  piston,  unscrew  the  bolt  which  holds  the  leather 
packing  in  place;  put  on  the  new  packing,  and  replace  the 
bolt,  piston  and  pin. 

Always  pump  with  a  regular,  even  stroke — a  jerky  one 
tends  to  wear  the  working  parts  of  the  pump. 

The  cylinder  and  pipe  containing  water  must  not  be  al- 
lowed to  freeze.  There  is  usually  a  plug  in  the  pipe  which 


PUMPS  AND  WATER  FILTERS 


113 


may  be  removed  to  let  out  the  water  when  there  is  danger  of 
freezing.  A  cracked  cylinder  or  pipe  will  leak  air  and  not 
raise  water. 

Keep  the  bearings  for  the  handle  well  oiled.    When  the 

pump  gets  old,  the  cylinder 
becomes  worn  and  leaks.  It 
can  sometimes  be  replaced 
with  a  new  cylinder,  or  more 
packing  must  be  put  on  the 
piston. 


FIG.  68.  Suction  pump. 


FIG.  69.   Force  pump. 


138.  Force  Pumps.  Force  pumps  are  used  on  deep  wells 
and  in  forcing  water  into  storage  tanks.    They  should  be  kept 
oiled;  they  should  be  operated  with  an  even  stroke,  and  the 
packing  in  them  should  be  renewed  if  they  leak  air.     In  force 
pumps,  the  valves  differ  in  their  arrangement  from  suction 
pumps  (Fig.  69). 

139.  Compressed-Air  Pumps.     Compressed-air  pumps 
consist  of  a  tank  for  storing  the  compressed  air — a  pump  to 
force  air  into  the  tank  and  cylinders  equipped  with  valves. 


114 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


These  act  automatically.  Whenever  an  outlet  pipe  is  opened, 
the  extra  pressure  of  air  from  the  storage  tank  raises  the  water 
from  the  well  or  cistern  (Fig.  70).  Air  should  be  kept  in  the 
pressure  tank. 

When  this  arrangement  is  used,  open  and  close  faucets 


FIG.  70.   Compressed-air  pump  system. 

slowly,  not  with  a  jerk.    Fig.  70-a  shows  plumbing  where 
such  a  system  is  used. 

140.  Water  Filters.  Water  filters  are  devices  for  strain- 
ing minute  particles  out  of  water.  They  are  made  of  sand, 
charcoal  or  porcelain,  kisselguhr  and  other  materials.  They 
are  without  value  unless  they  are  kept  clean.  A  dirty  filter  is 
worse  than  none.  Almost  the  only  way  to  clean  them  is  to 
sterilize  them  or  put  new  material  in  them.  Only  with  ex- 
pert care  can  filters  be  made  effective  for  removing  disease 


PUMPS  AND  WATER  FILTERS 


115 


FIG.  70-a.   System  of  plumbing  with  compressed-air  tank. 


116  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

germs.    A  dirty  filter  may  prove  a  menace.    Filters  are  val- 
uable for  removing  coarse  dirt  from  the  water. 

Filters  on  faucets  should  be  cleaned  or  renewed  every  day. 
Large  niters  for  rain  water  should  be  renewed  every  few 
months. 


CHAPTER  XX 
PRESSURE  TANKS;  PLUMBING  FIXTURES 

141.  Pressure  Tanks.    A  pressure  tank  is  a  device  for 
storing  water  under  pressure.     It  is  usually  placed  in  the 
basement  of  dwelling  houses. 

142.  Construction  of  the  Pressure  Tank.    The  tank 
is  tight  and  strong,  so  that  it  will  hold  air  and  water  under 
pressure.    The  tank  originally  has  some  air  in  it.    When  the 
water  is  pumped  in,  the  air  not  being  able  to  escape,  is  com- 
pressed .    When  there  is  a  chance  for  water  to  escape  from  the 
tank  which  is  connected  to  water  pipes,  the  pressure  of  the 
compressed  air  on  the  water  forces  it  to  upstairs  rooms  and 
other  points.     To  this  tank  is  attached  a  pressure  gage 
which  indicates  the  amount  of  pressure;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  tank,  for  when  the  water  gets  low, 
the  pressure  is  reduced  unless  the  air  has  escaped.    A  glass 
gage  shows  the  height  of  water.     Provision  is  made  to  let 
some  air  into  the  tank,  for  otherwise  it  may  in  time  be  all 
forced  out  of  the  tank  or  absorbed  by  the  water.    The  water 
in  a  pressure  tank  may  be  used  to  pump  water  from  a  cistern 
into  another  tank. 

143.  Care  of  Pressure  Tanks.    A  pressure  tank  must 
not  be  pumped  up  to  the  extent  that  the  pressure  becomes 
greater  than  the  strength  of  the  tank.    A  safety  valve  is  used 
in  controlling  the  pressure. 

144.  Hot- Water  Kitchen  Tank.    A  force  pump  is  gen- 
erally used  for  pumping  water  into  kitchen  tanks,  except 


118 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


when  water  from  another  tank,  such  as  a  city  reservoir,  flows 

into  it. 

145.  Instantaneous  Water  Heaters.  The  instanta- 
neous water  heater  (Fig.  71)  is 
a  device  which  heats  water  on 
its  way  to  the  outlet.  It  is 
composed  of  a  heating  unit  and 
piping  connected  to  the  outlet 
pipes.  In  this  type  of  heater, 
the  pipes  must  always  be  kept 
full  of  water,  and  some  device 
should  be  attached  (Fig.  72) 
to  the  heater  which  will  low- 
er the  heat  as  soon  as,  or 


FlG.  71.    Instantaneous  water 
heater. 


FIG.   72.    Device  for  heating 
water  automatically. 


before,  the  water  reaches  boiling  temperature.  This  will 
prevent  steam  from  forming,  which  might  injure  the  system. 
146.  Heaters  for  Tanks.  Hot  water  is  lighter  than 
cold.  A  pipe  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  leads  into  the 
heater,  passes  thru  the  heating  coils  and  up  into  the  top  of  the 
tank  (Figs.  73  and  74).  Water  from  the  tank  circulates  thru 
this  pipe  as  the  hot  water  rises  and  the  cold  water  falls  in  the 
tank.  As  the  heater  is  located  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  tank,  cold  water  seeking  this  level  flows  into  the  pipe  and 
becomes  heated  (Fig.  76). 


PRESSURE  TANKS;  PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


119 


A  booster  is  a  device  which  keeps  the  water  hot  up  to  the 
faucet  (Fig.  75).  If  there  is  a  pilot  on  a  gas  water  heater, 
be  sure  to  use  it.  The  burners  should  be  cared  for  in  the 
same  way  as  on  other  heaters  using  the  same  fuel.  Keep  the 
tank  full  of  water  and  the 
water  free  to  circulate 
thru  the  pipes.  Air-tight 
tanks  may  become  so  hot 
that  steam  is  formed  in 
large  amounts.  Tanks 
which  are  not  connected 
with  city  water  pipes  may 
be  fitted  with  safety  valves 
which  open  when  the  pres- 
sure of  steam  inside  the 
tank  reaches  a  certain 

point,  which  is  below  the      FlG>  73>  Force  pump  and  boiler> 
danger  point. 

Should  the  pipes  or  tank  freeze,  do  not  start  the  fire  in  the 
heater,  but  thaw  the  pipes  with  applications  of  hot  water  or 
other  means  until  the  water  can  circulate  in  them. 

Electric  heaters  are  usually  incased  in  a  waterproof  cover- 
ing and  put  in  the  center  of  the  tank.  Small  electric  heaters 
are  in  use  for  heating  a  glass  or  other  small  amount  of  water. 
These  are  called  immersion  heaters. 

147.  The  Elevated  Water  Tank.  In  rural  homes,  water 
is  sometimes  stored  in  an  elevated  tank.  This  is  usually 
placed  in  the  attic.  It  is  frequently  filled  by  means  of  a  force 
pump  connected  with  a  windmill  or  gasoline  engine.  If  there 
is  no  overflow  to  this  tank,  which  there  should  be,  it  must  be 


120 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


watched  when  being  filled  to  prevent  it  from  overflowing.     It 
may  be  fitted  with  an  automatic  device  similar  to  those  used 


FlG.  74.   Water  heater  and  tank.        FIG.  75.   Booster  for  hot  water. 

on  the  expansion  tanks  of  hot-water  furnaces  or  tanks  to 
water  closets  for  regulating  the  inflow  of  water. 

•  148.  Faucets.  Faucets  are  made  in  different  patterns, 
but  they  need  practically  the  same  care  (Fig.  77).  The  leather, 
or  rubber,  washer  in  a  faucet  must  be  renewed  when  it  leaks. 
To  renew  the  washer,  unscrew  the  cap  from  the  faucet.  Re- 
move the  valve.  Take  off  the  ring  of  packing.  Replace 
with  a  new  ring,  and  put  the  faucet  together  again.  The  only 
tools  needed  for  this  repair  work  are  a  wrench  and  a  screw- 


PRESSURE  TANKS;  PLUMBING  FIXTURES  121 


\ 


FIG.  76.   Water  tank  and  heater. 


122 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


driver.    Shut  off  the  water  from  the  pipe  to  the  faucet  before 
beginning  to  repair  a  leaking  faucet. 

149.    Valves.    Valves  are  constructed  much  like  faucets. 


FlG.  77.   Faucet  showing 
parts. 


FlG.  78.    Radi- 
ator valve. 


They,  too,  sometimes  need  repacking.    Follow  the  direc- 
tions for  repacking  of  faucet  (Fig.  78). 

150.    Overflows.    Keep  overflows  clean.    When  the  plug 


FIG.  79.    Cross-section  of  overflow 
on  bath-tub. 


FIG.  80.    Plumber's  pump. 


and  overflow  are  combined,  as  they  sometimes  are,  lift  out 
the  cylinder  forming  the  plug  and  overflow  and  wash  it. 
When  it  fails  to  hold  water  in  the  tub  or  basin,  it  may  need 


PRESSURE  TANKS;  PLUMBING  FIXTURES  123 

a  new  washer  on  the  lower  part.  This  may  be  replaced  very 
easily.  Fig.  79  shows  one  type  of  overflow. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  keep  other  overflows  clean.  They 
may  be  flushed  or  cleaned  with  a  brush  attached  to  a  wire. 

151.  Traps  for  Bath  Tubs  and  Basins.  Dirt  and 
slime  collects  in  traps.  Clean  them  frequently.  Always 
leave  clean  water  in  the  traps  of  bathroom  fixtures  and 
sinks.  Only  matter  quickly  soluble  in  water  should  pass 
into  drain  pipes.  Keep  matches,  hair,  sweepings,  rags,  fruit 
skins  and  stones  out  of  the  fixtures. 

If  the  drain  from  a  basin,  sink  or  tub  fails  to  carry  away  the 
water,  the  stoppage  may  be  removed  with  a  small  plumber's 
pump  (Fig.  80).  This  is  a  small  rubber  cone-like  device 
which  is  placed  over  the  outlet  to  the  drain  and  moved  up  and 
down  so  that  it  sucks  air,  water  and  whatever  may  be  mov- 
able up  the  pipe. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
CESSPOOLS,  SEPTIC  TANKS  AND  CITY  SEWER  SYSTEMS 

152.     Relative  Value  of  Cesspool  and  Septic  Tank. 

Sewer  pipes  for  private  water  systems  usually  drain  into  cess- 
pools or  septic  tanks  (Figs.  81,  and  81 -a).  The  waste  goes  thru 
a  process  of  decomposition  before  passing  out  into  the  soil. 


FIG.  81.   Septic  tank  and  tile. 

Sewage  should  both  liquify  and  oxidize  before  entering  into 
the  soil.  Oxidation  purifies  liquid  sewage  so  that  it  is  not 
contaminating.  If  oxidation  is  not  brought  about  in  the 
cesspool  or  septic  tank,  sewage,  which  is  fresh,  should  be  run 
onto  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  the  air  and  bacteria  for 
oxidation  can  be  found.  Cesspools  are  not  as  good  as  septic 
tanks  because  there  is  not  the  surety  of  sewage  being  oxidized 
in  them,  as  there  is  in  the  septic  tank.  They  lack  oxidizing 
chambers. 


CESSPOOLS,  SEPTIC  TANKS,  SEWER  SYSTEMS      125 


Unoxidized  liquid  sewage  being  in  a  condition  to  flow  read- 
ily thru  the  earth,  is  more  dangerous  than  fresh  sewage  be- 
cause it  is  more  likely  to  seep  into  wells. 

153.  Construction  of  the  Septic  Tank.  The  septic 
tank  is  composed  of  two  chambers — one  the  liquefying  cham- 
ber and  the  other  the  oxi- 
dizing chamber.  Both  are 
water-tight  (Fig.  82).  The 
fresh  sewage  comes  into 
the  liquefying  chamber 
thru  a  pipe  placed  near  the 
top  of  the  tank.  Here  it 
stands  and  liquefies,  which 
is  a  process  of  decomposi- 
tion. The  solids  fall  to  the 
bottom  as  they  come  into 
this  chamber,  and  the 
liquid  formed  rises  to  the 
top  and  flows  into  the  oxi- 


FiG.  81-a.  Septic  tank. 


dizing  chamber  (B,  Fig.  82),  when  it  reaches  a  point  a  little  be- 
low the  height  of  the  inlet  pipe.  It  either  does  this  by  flow- 
ing over  a  partition  or  thru  a  pipe  leading  from  one  compart- 
ment to  the  other. 

The  second  compartment  is  usually  slightly  smaller  than 
the  first.  Here  the  sewage  is  held  until  the  process  of  oxida- 
tion takes  place,  which  renders  it  less  dangerous.  When  the 
sewage  in  the  second  chamber  reaches  a  certain  height,  it 
siphons  out  into  a  tile  which  distributes  it  over  a  plot  of 
ground  (Fig.  81).  :,-.. 

Various  kinds  of  siphons  are  used,  the  important  feature  of 


126 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


them  being  that  they  are  constructed  so  that  they  drain  the 
tank  often  enough  to  remove  the  oxidized  sewage  and  not  so 
often  as  to  remove  it  before  it  has  become  oxidized. 

154.     The  Size  of  Tank.    Because  the  liquid  must  be 
drained  from  the  tank  at  certain  intervals,  it  is  important  that 


.OPEN  COVER 


CLOSED  COVER. 


FIG.  82.   Details  of  septic  tank. 

the  size  of  the  tank  be  adapted  to  the  amount  of  waste  it 
will  receive. 

Septic  tanks  are  kept  warm  by  the  heat  generated  in  the 
oxidizing  process,  which  is  simply  slow  burning  of  the  waste, 
so  that  they  rarely  freeze  in  winter. 

Run  waste  water  from  the  kitchen  sink  and  laundry  tubs 
into  a  catch  basin  to  collect  the  grease  from  the  water,  as 
grease  or  oil  on  the  surface  of  the  sewage  of  a  tank  will  stop 
the  action  of  the  microbes  in  the  tank  by  smothering  them. 

When  too  much  grease  does  get  into  it,  the  tank  must  be 
thoroly  cleaned. 

Do  not  use  lye,  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic  acid  and  other 
chemicals  in  drains  and  septic  tanks.  Disinfectants  of  this 


CESSPOOLS,  SEPTIC  TANKS,  SEWER  SYSTEMS       127 

type  put  into  pipes  leading  to  a  septic  tank  will  kill  the  useful 
bacteria  which  decompose  the  sewage. 

Use  clear  boiling  water  to  clean  the  pipes.  This  will  be 
cooled  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  tank  so  that  it  will  not  kill 
the  useful  bacteria. 

Insoluble  mineral  matter  gradually  accumulates  in  septic 
tanks,  so  that  they  must  be  cleaned  once  every  few  years. 
Care  will  postpone  the  times  for  cleaning. 

Do  not  wash  vegetables  with  much  earth  adhering  to  them 
in  sinks  leading  to  cesspools  or  septic  tanks.  Shake  or  rinse 
off  the  dirt  before  washing  them. 

155.  Disposal  of  Waste  in  Cities.  In  some  cities, 
householders  are  required  by  law  to  have  catch  basins  con- 
nected to  their  sewer  systems  to  remove  leaves  and  dirt  from 
storm  water  and  grease  from  kitchen  sinks  and  laundry  tubs. 
The  laws  of  other  cities  forbid  the  use  of  catch  basins,  but  urge 
householders  to  help  care  for  the  city  sewer  system  by  not 
putting  grease  into  sewer  pipes. 

Strong  chemicals  should  not  be  put  into  the  pipes.  Use 
only  boiling  water  in  cleaning  pipes.  Do  not  wash  vege- 
tables on  which  there  is  much  loose  dirt  in  sinks. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
WATER  CLOSETS 

156.  Construction  of  Water  Closets.  The  water  closet 
is  a  device  for  the  disposal  of  excrement.  The  closet  includes 
a  tank  of  water  for  flushing  the  waste  from  the  bowl  to  the 
sewer  or  waste  pipe.  Between  the  bowl  and  the  waste  pipe  is 
a  device  called  a  trap  which  holds  water  and  seals  the  end  of 
the  waste  pipe  so  that  gases  from  the  sewer  or  the  septic  tank 
cannot  come  into  the  house.  (Fig.  83-a.) 

The  bowl  of  the  newer  models  of  water  closets  have  the  trap 
as  a  part  of  the  bowl,  which  saves  joints  and  connections 
likely  to  catch  dirt  and  stop  up  the  trap  (Fig.  83).  The 
water  coming  from  the  flushing  tank  is  carried  around  the 
bowl  so  that  it  is  flushed  clean  by  the  swift-flowing  water. 
When  the  water  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  it  rushes 
upward  a  few  inches  before  it  can  turn  downward  to  the 
waste  pipe.  This  it  does  while  flowing  rapidly  and  cleansing 
the  bowl;  when  the  tank  empties,  water  collects  in  the  bowl  to 
the  level,  where  it  can  flow  down  the  waste  pipe  (Fig.  83).  As 
soon  as  all  the  water  above  this  level  has  gone  down  the  pipe, 
the  remainder  stays  in  the  bowl,  forming  the  seal  until  the 
next  time  the  bowl  is  flushed.  Fig.  83-a  shows  two  kinds  of 
traps. 

If  water  flows  at  too  rapid  a  rate  thru  the  trap  of  the  bowl, 
as  in  cases  when  there  is  too  much  pressure  on  the  water  or 
the  tank  is  set  too  high  so  that  gravity  gives  it  too  much  force, 
or  if  an  excessive  suction  is  produced  in  the  drain  pipe,  all  the 
water  may  run  out  of  the  bowl,  leaving  the  trap  unsealed. 


WATER  CLOSETS 


129 


The  remedy  for  this  is  a  change  in  the  flushing  tank  or  in  its 
position. 

157.  Siphoning  the  Trap.  If  rags  or  shreds  of  material 
are  dropped  into  the  bowl  and  lodge  in  the  trap,  only  a  part  of 
them  going  over  into  the  waste  pipe,  they 
may  siphon  the  water,  sealing  the  trap,  over 
into  the  waste  pipe.  There  was  more  diffi- 
culty of  this  sort  with  traps  of  older  models 
than  with  the  newer  types.  Always  leave 
clean  water  in  the  trap. 

158.  The  Flushing  Tank. 
The  flushing  tank  (Fig.  84)  is  FIG.  83.  Section 
a  reservoir  to  hold  sufficient  of  water  closet* 
water  to  cleanse  the  bowl.  In  one  type  of 
tank,  water  is  retained  in  the  tank  by  a  plug 
held  in  place  by  the  weight  of  the  water  in  the 
tank.  By  a  lever  on  the  outside  of  the  tank, 
this  plug  is  lifted  when  the  bowl  is  to  be  flush - 
FIG.  83-a.  Types  e(*>  and  it  stays  open  until  all  the  water  flows 
of  traps.  out  Of  the  tank.  When  the  water  has  all  left 
the  tank,  the  plug  falls  back  into  the  hole  and  fresh  water 
flowing  into  the  tank  holds  it  in  place,  as  there  is  nothing  in 
the  pipe  below  to  make  it  float  upward. 

Working  at  the  same  time  with  the  plug  is  a  valve  in  the 
water  supply  pipe,  attached  to  a  large  hollow  float.  The 
valve  opens  as  the  water  flows  out  of  the  tank,  and  closes  as 
the  tank  is  filled.  This  valve  is  operated  by  the  float  floating 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.  As  the  water  flows  out  of  the 
tank,  the  float  falls,  opening  the  valve  and  letting  in  water. 
As  the  tank  fills,  the  float  rises  to  the  top  of  the  tank  and 


130 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


shuts  off  the  valve.  If  the  float  catches  so  that  it  fails  to  rise 
and  fall,  or  becomes  disconnected  from  the  valve,  it  will  not 
operate  the  valve.  There  is  an  overflow  pipe  in  the  tank 
which  carries  off  all  water  rising  above  a  certain  level  in  the 
tank.  This  prevents  the  tank  from  overflowing  when  the 
valve  fails  to  turn. 

159.  Repairing  the  Flushing  Tank.  When  the  water 
continues  to  flow  into  the  tank,  take  off  the  cover  of  the  tank 
and  examine  the  valve  and  ball  to  see 
why  they  are  not  working  properly.  If 
disconnected  or  caught,  remedy  the 
trouble.  If  the  plug  fails  to  stop  the 
flow  of  water  out  of  the  tank,  water  will 

FIG.    84.    Diagram  of  also  continue  to  flow  into  the  tank.    To 
flushing  tank.  . 

remedy  this  temporarily,  push  the  plug 

down  over  the  outlet  and  also  note  the  reason  why  it  has  not 
fallen  back  automatically.  If  worn,  it  may  have  to  be  re- 
placed with  a  new  one. 

There  should  be  a  valve  to  close  the  pipe  to  the  tank.  With 
this  valve,  much  water  can  be  saved  in  time  of  trouble,  and 
greater  convenience  may  be  had  in  remedying  difficulties 
with  the  devices  inside  the  tank. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  V 

1.  How  does  a  pump  lift  water  from  a  well? 

2.  How  do  pumps  differ  in  construction? 

3.  What  care  should  be  given  a  pump? 

4.  When  is  a  water  filter  useful?     When  dangerous? 

5.  What  is  a  pressure  tank?     How  does  it  operate? 

6.  Describe  two  kinds  of  water  heaters.     What  precautions  should 
be  taken  with  each  kind  of  heater? 


QUESTIONS  131 

7.  Describe  a  water  faucet.     Try  to  replace  an  old  washer  with  a 
new  one. 

8.  Have  you  ever  cleaned  the  overflow  to  a  tub  or  basin?     Should 
they  be  cleaned? 

9.  What  are  traps?     What  may  cause  them  to  fail  to  work? 

10.  How  would  you  select  a  good  trap?     How  would  you  clean  it? 

11.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  septic  tank.     What  is  the  action 
that  takes  place  in  a  septic  tank?     What  care  should  be  given  to  it? 

12.  Examine  the  tank  to  a  water  closet.     How  does  it  operate? 


PART  VI 
LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT. 

CHAPTER   XXIII 
WASHING  MACHINES 

160.  Kinds  of  Washing  Machines.  Washing  machines 
are  tools  to  help  remove  dirt  from  clothes  either  by  friction  or 
by  forcing  water  thru  them.  They  are  known  by  such  names 
as  suction,  cylinder,  rotary,  oscillating,  locomotive  and  cen- 


n 


FIG.  85.  Washer  to  place  in  boiler. 


FIG.  86.   Another  type  of  washer 
for  boiler. 


trifugal  machines.  These  names  are  used  differently  by  va- 
rious authorities. 

Washing  machines  may  be  attached  to  any  kind  of  motor, 
or  they  may  be  manipulated  by  hand. 

161.  Suction  Machines.  The  suction  machines  are 
made  to  force  water  thru  the  clothes  (Figs.  85  and  86).  Some 
are  operated  by  hand,  some  by  mechanical  power,  and  some 
are  funnel-shaped  devices  to  be  placed  in  boilers. 

Hand  or  mechanical  suction  machines  have  cones  or  fun- 
nels which  are  pushed  down  onto  the  clothes  and  then  sud- 
denly lifted,  causing  suction  which  draws  out  the  dirt  pre- 


WASHING  MACHINES 


133 


viously  loosened  by  the  moisture  and  pressure.  Mechanical 
devices  attached  to  the  top  are  sometimes  used  to  raise  and 
lower  the  funnels  (Figs.  87  and  87-a). 

The  suction  washers  for  use  in  boilers  are  placed  funnel  side 
down.  By  means  of  these,  the  steam 
forming  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler 
forces  the  water  thru  the  clothes. 
Distribute  the  clothes  evenly  about 
the  washer.  Fill  the  boiler  with 
water  and  add  shaved  soap. 


When 


FIG.  87.   Suction  washer. 


set  over  a  fire,  the  steam  forming  at 
the  bottom  raises  the  water  in  the  funnel  to  the  top  and 

.,  pushes  it  out  thru  the  clothes,  or 
raises  the  funnel  and  makes  it 
beat  upon  the  clothes. 

Other  machines  combine  the 
two  methods  of  washing — 
forcing  water  thru  clothes  and 
rubbing  them  at  the  same  time. 
162.  Cylinder  Washers.  Cy- 
linder washers  contain  a  perfor- 
ated barrel-like  device,  into  which 
the  clothes  are  placed  (Fig.  88). 
This  cylinder  has  cleats  on  the  in- 
side to  raise  the  clothes  as  the  cylinder  turns  and  drop  them 
when  they  reach  the  highest  point  in  it,  back  into  the  water, 
thus  pounding  water  thru  them  and  rubbing  them  against 
the  side  of  the  cylinder  as  they  are  raised.  This  is  the  type 
used  in  most  laundries.  A  cylinder  turned  by  an  electric 
motor  is  made  which  can  be  placed  in  the  stationary  wash 


FIG.  87-a.  Washing  machine. 


134 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


tub  in  small  apartments.      The  tub  then  serves  as  the  outer 
part  of  the  washing  machine. 

163.  Rotary  Washers.  In  the  rotary,  or  milk-stool,  type 

....,  of  washer,  sometimes  called 
£--, _:  |  "Dolly"  (Fig.  89),  the  stool-like 

contrivance  which  presses 
against  the  clothes  must  be 
turned  half-way  around  in  one 
*  direction,  and  then  back  the 
other  way,  to  prevent  twisting, 
tearing  or  otherwise  injuring 
the  clothes.  The  clothes  are  thus 
rubbed  against  the  corrugated 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  thru  the  water.  Never 
put  too  many  clothes  in  this  type 
of  machine  because  too  tight 

packing  causes  the  machine 

to  tear  them.  -; 

^m^-^f 

164.  Machine    with 
an  Oscillating  Washing 
Device .    This  washer  con- 
tains an  oscillating  device 
for    rubbing    the    clothes 
over  the  corrugated  bot- 
tom.    The  rubbing  device 

is  also   corrugated  and   is  ^  ^  Rotary  washer. 

put  on  top  of  the  clothes 

and  moved  backward  and  forward,   thus   rubbing  them 
between  two  wash-boards  (Fig.  90). 


FIG.  88.    Cylinder  washer. 


WASHING  MACHINES 


135 


165.  Oscillating  Washers.     Oscillating  washers  have 
corrugated  bottoms.    The  clothes  are  put  into  the  machine 
with    the    wash    water.        The 

washer  rocks,  throwing  the  clothes 
backward  and  forward  thru  the 
water,  loosening  and  squeezing 
out  the  dirt.  This  washer  works 
easiest  when  the  machine  is  well 
filled  with  water. 

166.  Locomotive     Washer. 
The  locomotive  washer  (Fig.  91) 
slides  backward  and  forward,  thus 

churning  the  water  and  clothes.    It  is  operated  only  by  power. 


FIG.   90.   Oscillating  wash- 
ing machine. 


FIG.   91.   Locomotive  washing  machine. 

A  heating  unit,  usually  gas,  in  the  base  of  the   machine 
keeps  the  water  hot. 

167.     Centrifugal  Washer.    A  centrifugal  washer  (Fig. 


136  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

91-a)  contains  a  perforated  basket  which  whirls  in  the  water 
contained  in  the  machine.  The  clothes  are  placed  in  the  bas- 
ket, rolled  into  bundles.  The  rapid  whirling  thru  the  water 
removes  the  dirt  from  the  clothes. 

168.     Care  of  Washers.    The  bearings  and  other  motor 
parts  of  a  washing  machine  should  be  kept  oiled.    Keep  belts 


FIG.  91-a.   Centrifugal  washing  machine. 

tight.  Run  the  machine  about  ten  minutes  each  while  the 
clothes  are  in  the  first  wash  water  and  the  two  sudsy  waters, 
and  five  minutes  each  for  the  hot  and  the  cold  rinse  waters. 
Blueing  had  better  be  done  in  a  tub. 

Wooden  machines  must  dry  out  occasionally,  or  else  they 
get  slimy.  Do  not  let  them  get  dry  enough  to  crack.  Air 
the  machines  after  use.  Cover  them  when  not  in  use  to  keep 
them  clean. 


WASHING  MACHINES  137 

When  a  gasoline  engine  is  used  in  operating  a  washing  ma- 
chine, it  must  be  set  so  that  the  belt  will  pull  straight  on  the 
pulley  wheel  of  the  machine.  The  belt  should  be  tight  enough 
to  prevent  slipping.  Stationary  washers  are  set  to  avoid 
such  troubles,  but  those  which  are  moved  from  place  to  place 
must  be  adjusted  by  the  operator. 

The  pulleys  must  be  adjusted  to  turn  at  the  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute  directed  for  the  washer  used.  This 
usually  does  not  exceed  150  revolutions  of  the  motor  wheel 
per  minute. 

Water  motors  must  receive  more  than  25  pounds  of  water 
pressure  to  operate  a  washing  machine. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
WRINGERS 

169.  Roller  Wringer.     The  kind  of  wringer  in  most  gen- 
eral use  is  the  one  made  of  two  rollers  rotating  in  opposite 
directions,  the  clothes  being  drawn  in  between  the  two  by 
friction,  and  the  water  pressed  out.     (See  Fig.  88.) 

The  rollers  in  modern  wringers  are  made  of  a  composition 
of  rubber.  They  are  adjusted  so  that  they  may  be  brought 
close  together  or  moved  apart.  When  wringing  thin  articles, 
the  rollers  should  be  set  close  together,  and  when  wringing 
heavy  articles,  they  should  be  set  far  apart.  This  adjust- 
ment of  the  wringer  helps  to  do  better  work  and  save  wear 
and  tear  on  clothing  and  wringer. 

170.  Care  of  Wringers.    The  bearings  should  be  kept 
oiled,  but  oil  must  be  kept  off  the  rollers,  as  it  rots  them. 
Keep  the  rollers  washed  clean.    Soap  and  water  will  remove 
the  dirt  which  collects  on  them.     If  this  does  not  clean  them, 
wipe  the  rollers  in  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia. 

If  the  rollers  get  badly  stained,  wipe  them  with  a  cloth 
dipped  in  kerosene.  Wash  this  off  immediately,  as  kerosene 
dissolves  the  rubber  as  well  as  the  dirt. 

Never  leave  a  wringer  with  the  pressure  on  the  rollers  when 
not  in  use.  The  pressure  is  either  adjusted  by  thumb-screws 
or  by  a  clamp.  Loosen  these  when  thru  with  the  wringer. 

171.  Centrifugal  Wringer,  or  Dryer.     The  centrifugal 
wringer,  or  dryer,  consists  of  a  tub,  inside  of  which  is  a  smaller 
tub  with  perforated  sides.     There  is  a  drain  at  the  bottom  of 
the  outside  tub.    The  wringer  is  attached  to  a  device  for 


WRINGERS 


139 


making  the  inside  tub  turn  rapidly.    The  power  used  is  either 
hand  or  machine  (Fig.  92).  . 

The  rapid  turning  of  the  inner  tub  for  three  minutes  throws 
the  clothing  and  water  in  them  to  the  outside  of  the  revolving 
center.  This  tub  being  perforated,  lets  the  water  thru  while 
retaining  the  clothing.  Thus,  the  clothes  are  wrung  as  dry  as 


FIG.   92.   Washer  and  dryer. 

in  a  wringer  of  the  roller  type.  If  the  machine  is  turned  a 
longer  time,  the  clothes  can  be  wrung  entirely  dry. 

172.  Care  of  the  Machine.  When  loading  centrifugal 
wringers,  put  the  heavy  pieces  at  the  bottom  of  the  basket. 
Put  articles  in  basket  in  bunches,  and  pack  fairly  tight.  Do 
not  have  loose  ends  hanging  out.  Fold  sleeves  into  garments . 
Load  the  basket  full  if  there  are  clothes  enough.  A  cover 
helps  to  hold  the  clothes  in  place.  Load  so  that  it  runs  even 
and  does  not  wobble. 

Never  hold  your  hand  on  the  extractor  after  it  has  started. 


140  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

173.  Combination  Washer  and  Wringer.  The  centrif- 
ugal washer  and  wringer  combined  is  built  so  that  the  basket 
can  be  lowered  into  a  tub  of  water.  The  clothes  rotating  in 
water  are  washed.  After  this  is  accomplished,  the  cylinder 
is  raised,  and,  when  rotated,  serves  as  a  wringer  of  the  centri- 
fugal type. 

Load  the  washer  with  fewer  clothes  than  for  wringing. 
Roll  each  garment  into  a  bunch  before  putting  it  into  the 
washer. 

Centrifugal  wringers  are  used  also  as  dry-cleaning  machines. 
For  this  use,  they  should  be  operated  out  of  doors  and  at  a 
slower  speed  than  when  water  is  used.  Friction  heats  gaso- 
line, causing  it  to  evaporate  rapidly.  The  friction  between 
clothing,  tub  and  gasoline  when  turned  at  a  high  speed  may 
produce  a  spark  which  will  ignite  the  gasoline. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


MANGLES  AND  IRONS 

174.  Construction  of  Mangles.    Mangles  are  made  of 
rollers  rotating  in  the  same  direction,  one  moving  faster  than 
the  other,  set  close  together  so  that  they  press  the  clothes 
smooth,  or  they  consist  of  one  roller  rotating  over  a  stationary 
surface  called  a  shoe  (Fig.  93). 

175.  Cold  Mangles.    When  no  heater  is  attached  to  the 
shoe  or  one  roller,  the  mangle  is  a  cold  mangle.     It  smoothes 
clothes,  but  does  not  do  as  good  work 

as  a  heated  mangle.  There  is  almost 
nothing  about  mangles  to  get  out  of 
order.  The  only  caution  necessary  is 
to  keep  the  bearings  oiled,  have 
guards  so  as  not  to  catch  hands  in 
the  power  machines,  and  loosen  the 
roller  so  that  it  is  not  pressed  onto 
any  surface  when  not  in  use. 

176.  Heated    Mangles.      The 
heated  mangles  have  the  heat  applied 

to  one  of  the  rollers  or  to  the  shoe.  They  may  be  used  cold. 
The  heat  may  come  from  gasoline,  gas,  electricity  or  kerosene. 
The  management  of  the  heating  unit  is  the  same  as  for  a 
stove  using  any  of  these  fuels.  The  same  care  should  be 
taken  of  the  burners  as  of  stove  burners. 

177.  Care  and  Use  of  Mangles.    (1)  Have  the  clothes 
damp  before  putting  them  thru  the  mangle.     (2)  Protect  the 
mangle  from  dust  at  all  times.     (3)  See  that  belts  are  properly 


93'  Mangle> 


142  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

adjusted  on  mangles.  (4)  The  covering  put  on  mangle  rollers 
must  be  of  even  thickness,  or  they  will  not  do  good  work.  (5) 
Do  not  mangle  starched  garments,  or  those  on  which  are 
many  or  large  buttons.  (6)  Wax  the  steel  roller  while  it  is 
warm,  and  wipe  it  clean  with  a  cloth  (Fig.  94).  (7)  Always 
remove  pressure  when  not  using  mangles. 

178.  Flat,  or  Sadirons.  Irons  are  of  two  kinds— those 
which  must  be  heated  on  a  stove,  and  the  self-heating  ones. 

The  weight  of  the  iron  governs  the 
amount  of  heat  it  will  absorb,  and 
this  is  the  amount  that  it  will  give 
up  in  ironing.  Heat  is  needed  to 
dry  clothes,  and  as  the  cloth  can  be 
smoothed  best  when  damp,  but  will 
wrinkle  again  unless  dried  while 
smooth,  heat  is  essential  to  the  iron- 
ing process. 

The  weight  of  the  iron  helps  in 
the  smoothing  process.    The  heavy 
FIG.  94.    Waxing  roller  of  irons  do  the  best  grade  of  work,  but 

are  harder  to  manipulate.      The 

most  satisfactory  iron  for  a  woman  of  average  strength  to 
manage  weighs  six  to  eight  pounds. 

The  following  points  should  be  remembered  in  using  the 
iron:  (1)  Rub  rusty  irons  with  bees'-wax  or  paraffine  and 
wipe  with  a  cloth.  (2)  Wash  irons  frequently,  and  rub  with 
sand  soap,  Dutch  cleanser,  ashes  or  salt  to  polish  them.  (3) 
Rinse  in  boiling  water  and  wipe  dry.  Warm  on  the  stove  and 
rub  with  bees'-wax,  and  set  away.  (4)  Before  using,  wipe 
with  a  cloth.  (5)  Do  not  wash  electric  irons — rub  with  wax 


MANGLES  AND  IRONS 


143 


or  paraffine.  Wipe  off  with  a  clean  cloth.  (6)  It  has  been 
found  by  tests  that  the  time  required  in  heating  the  self -heat- 
ing iron  usually  equals  the  time  required  for  the  iron  to  cool 
after  the  heating  has  been  stopped,  but 
that  an  iron  cools  faster  on  wet,  heavy 
cloth  than  on  thin,  dry  cloth. 

179.  Charcoal  Irons.      Charcoal   is 
no  longer  used  for  heating  irons.     It  makes 
too  much  dirt.      Difficulty  is  found,  also, 
in  keeping  charcoal  irons  at  a  constant 
temperature. 

180.  Electric  Irons.     An  electric  iron 
(Fig.  95)  is  made  up  of  a  heavy  nickel- 
plated  base,  a  block  of  iron  which  holds 
the  heat,  and  a  heating  unit  of  small  wires, 

or  a  plate,  thru  which  the  current  passes,  FlG>    95 
meeting     resistance.        Since    resistance     electric  iron, 
against  the  flow  of  an  electric  current  produces  heat,  the  iron 
is  heated.   It  has  a  handle  and  shell  covering  the  heating  unit 
to  protect  the  hand  and  prevent  loss  of  heat  thru  the  top. 

Getting  electric  irons  too  hot  injures  the  heating  unit,  as 
electricity  can  heat  metals  so  hot  that  they  melt.  Excessive 
heat  may  disconnect  the  circuit  by  burning  the  wires  in  the 
iron,  or  it  may  melt  the  metal  so  as  to  form  a  short  circuit. 

Always  follow  exactly  the  directions  for  connecting  and 
disconnecting  the  iron  with  the  current.  Some  say  discon- 
nect at  the  plug  between  iron  and  cord,  or  others  the  plug 
placed  near  the  socket  (Fig.  95-a) .  The  weakest  part  in  irons 
is  likely  to  be  in  the  attachment  plug.  When  connecting  the 

plug  to  the  iron,  be  sure  to  get  it  back  in  place  each  time.     A 
10 


144  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

plug  that  does  not  fit  well  into  place  may  cause  sparking  and 
develop  sufficient  heat  to  burn  off  the  insulation  from  the 
cord,  if  not  the  fuses  of  the  system  to  which  the  iron  is  at- 
tached. 

Never  attach  an  iron  to  a  lighting  system  without  making 
sure  that  the  iron  is  made  to  be  operated  on  the  voltage  of  the 
current  to  which  is  is  connected.  If  it  is  not  the  same,  at- 
taching the  iron  may  either  burn  out  the  fuses  of  the  lighting 
system,  or  ruin  the  iron. 

Operate  the  iron  at  a  good  temperature  for  ironing,  and 

take  care  to  keep  it  from  getting 
hotter  than  is  required. 

181.  Gas  Irons.  Gas  irons 
are  attached  to  a  tube  leading 
from  a  gas  pipe.  There  is  a 
burner  inside  the  iron  which  is 

FIG.  95:a.  Connecting  plug  for  generally  a  straight   rod  with 
electric  attachment. 

perforations  in  it  for  the  escape 

of  the  mixture  of  gas  and  air.  The  air  mixes  with  the  gas  at  a 
point  near  where  the  gas  pipe  enters  the  iron.  The  principle 
of  heating  an  iron  is  the  same  as  the  heating  of  a  gas  stove 
(Fig.  96). 

The  burner  in  the  iron  is  lighted,  and  as  soon  as  it  has 
heated  the  iron,  the  ironing  can  proceed.  The  only  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  using  this  kind  of  an  iron  are  that  a 
quick,  jerky  stroke  may  blow  out  the  flame,  and  if  the  work  is 
being  done  in  a  drafty  place,  the  iron  may  not  heat  evenly. 
These  difficulties  can  be  overcome,  however.  The  person 
using  the  iron  can  learn  to  use  a  stroke  which  will  be  rapid  and 
still  not  put  out  the  flame.  The  ironing  board  may  be  pro- 


MANGLES  AND  IRONS  145 

tected  from  drafts.    A  gas  iron  is  safe  and  practical.     It  is 
easily  controlled  by  the  valve  admitting  the  gas. 

182.  Acetylene  Irons.    Acetylene  irons  are  similar  to 
gas  irons,  the  difference  in  them  being  in  the  construction  of 
the  burner. 

183 .  Alcohol  Irons .    Alcohol  irons  have  a  tank  attached 
to  them  which  holds  about  a  half  pint  of  alcohol.    This  iron 
is  similar  to  the  gasoline  iron  shown  in  Fig.  97.    Some  alcohol 
is  turned  into  the  iron,  and  then  the  valve  is  closed.    This  al- 
cohol is  lighted  with  a  match  and  used  to  heat  the  generator 


FIG.  96.   Gas  iron.  FIG.  97.   Alcohol  iron. 


in  the  iron  so  that  it  will  be  hot  enough  to  change  the  alcohol 
into  vapor.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  alcohol  is  again 
turned  on  and  lighted.  The  burners  in  these  irons  should  be 
kept  free  from  dirt.  Like  gas  irons,  they  should  be  used  with 
a  stroke  which  will  not  put  out  the  fire.  They  cannot  be  op- 
erated in  a  strong  draft.  The  heat  in  them  can  be  regulated 
by  the  valve  which  controls  the  flow  of  alcohol. 

184.  Gasoline  Irons.  There  are  two  kinds  of  gasoline 
irons.  In  one  the  tank  is  a  part  of  the  iron  (Fig.  97),  and  in 
the  other  the  tank  is  many  feet  away,  where  the  gasoline  is 
changed  to  gas  by  a  cold-process  gasoline  gas  machine  and 
connected  with  the  iron  by  a  flexible  tube.  These  latter  op- 
erate like  other  gas  irons. 


146  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

Gasoline  irons  with  the  tank  attached  are  operated  the 
same  as  alcohol  irons.  The  danger  in  these  irons  comes 
in  the  tanks  becoming  overheated.  Alcohol  is  used  first  to 
heat  the  generator  because  it  will  not  smoke  the  iron.  The 
gasoline,  when  lighted,  should  burn  with  a  blue  flame. 

The  tank  should  be  one  which  has  been  tested  to  stand  a 
high  gas  pressure,  as  the  gasoline  in  the  tank  may  become 
heated  and  vaporize.  The  gas  so  formed  must  not  escape 
into  the  room,  where  it  might  be  ignited  by  a  spark.  If  not 
allowed  to  escape,  it  exerts  considerable  pressure  inside  the 
tank.  If  the  pressure  becomes  too  great,  it  will  break  the 
tank,  escape  and  ignite  from  the  flame  in  the  iron.  The  open- 
ing for  filling  must  always  be  kept  closed  when  the  iron  is  in 

• 

use. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  VI 

1.  Explain  the  construction  of  various  types  of  washing  machines. 
What  are  the  advantages  of  each? 

2.  What  care  should  a  roller  wringer  receive? 

3.  How  does  a  centrifugal  wringer  dry  clothes? 

4.  How  does  a  mangle  differ  from  a  wringer? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  care  that  should  be  given  to  a  plain  flat 
iron  and  an  electric  iron? 


PART  VII 

HOUSE-CLEANING  EQUIPMENT 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
VACUUM  CLEANERS  AND  CLEANING  TOOLS 

185.     Principle  Upon  Which  Vacuum  Cleaner  Works. 

The  principle  of  a  vacuum  cleaner  is  that,  thru  suction,  dust 
and  dirt  are  drawn  from  the  floor  or  other  surfaces  into  some 
container.  If  the  power  of  the  cleaner  is  sufficient,  it  may 


FIG.  98.   Brush  and  vacuum  cleaner  combined. 


pick  up  anything — but  cleaners  having  a  moderate  amount  of 
power  are  somewhat  more  discriminating.  They  do,  how- 
ever, remove  the  fine,  greasy  dirt  that  brooms,  brushes  and 
carpet  sweepers  fail  to  get.  The  coarser  dirt  and  ravelings 
may  be  taken  up  by  a  carpet  sweeper,  with  a  brush,  or  picked 
up  by  hand.  The  brush  is  combined  with  the  cleaner  in  many 
machines  (Fig.  98). 


148  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

186.  Different  Kinds  of  Vacuum  Cleaners.  There  are 
cleaners  with  bellows,  pumps  or  fans  to  draw  in  air  and  dirt. 
The  ones  with  bellows  in  them  work  on  the  principle  of  a  bel- 
lows which  is  reversed  so  that  when  the  air  is  drawn  in,  it 
brings  the  dirt  with  it.  The  other  kind  works  with  a  fan 
which  draws  or  sucks  air  from  the  floor  thru  a  nozzle  into  the 
machine.  In  the  machine,  the  dust  is  filtered  out  of  the  air 
and  collected  in  a  pan. 

The  machines  with  fans  in  them  are  mostly  power  ma- 
chines, as  the  fan  must  revolve  very  rapidly.  The  hand  ma- 
chines are  mostly  of  the  pump  and  bellows  types.  Some  are 
combined  with  the  carpet  sweeper,  making  two  machines  in 
one.  With  this  device  once  going  over  the  floor  is  sufficient 
for  removing  both  coarse  and  fine  dirt.  The  hand  machines 
do  not  have  as  much  power  of  suction  as  the  power  machines, 
but  they  do  very  satisfactory  work.  They  are  more  effective 
than  a  carpet  sweeper  in  removing  dirt,  but  they  do  not  get  as 
much  of  it  as  the  stationary  cleaner.  Removing  the  sharp 
grit  from  rugs  and  carpets  lengthens  the  life  of  them  so  that 
the  more  grit  a  cleaner  can  remove  without  tearing  the  carpet, 
the  more  valuable  it  is. 

When  the  pump  type  is  being  used,  the  piston  is  drawn  up, 
drawing  with  it  air  and  the  dirt  which  is  present  at  the  point 
from  which  the  air  comes.  A  cloth  filters  out  the  dust.  The 
air  escapes  from  the  machine  before  the  piston  is  lowered  to 
draw  in  more  air  and  dirt.  If  this  were  not  true,  the  dust 
would  be  forced  back  as  the  piston  was  lowered. 

187.  Nozzle  of  Vacuum  Cleaner.  The  nozzle,  or  point 
of  entry  of  air  into  the  machine,  is  an  important  part  of  a 
vacuum  cleaner.  This  is  constructed  so  that  it  fits  the  sur- 


VACUUM  CLEANERS  149 

face  from  which  the  dirt  is  to  be  drawn,  insuring  the  drawing 
up  of  dust  as  well  as  air. 

The  dirt  is  drawn  from  only  a  few  square  inches  of  surface 
at  one  time.  The  thoroness  and  rapidity  with  which  the  dirt 
is  removed  depends  upon  the  strength  of  the  suction  or  the 
power  of  the  machine.  Thus,  hand  machines  may  have  to  be 
moved  over  a  surface  several  times  if  it  is  very  dirty  in  order 
to  get  all  the  dirt. 

Plain  solid  nozzles  work  best  on  carpets  and  other  surfaces 
of  similar  kind.  They  are  not  effective  on  hard  floors,  but 
this  is  not  essential,  as  dirt  can  easily  be  removed  from  smooth 
surfaces  with  a  brush. 

188.  Cautions  in  Using  Vacuum  Cleaners.  The  diffi- 
culties to  be  met  with  in  vacuum  cleaners  are  leaks.  First  of 
all,  the  machine  must  be  fitted  together  perfectly;  if  not,  the 
dust  drawn  into  the  machine  escapes  into  the  air  of  the  room 
instead  of  into  the  collection  pan  or  chamber. 

Machines  are  made  air-tight,  but  to  be  cleaned,  they  must 
be  taken  apart.  In  putting  them  together,  the  housekeeper 
must  take  pains  to  fit  them  together  perfectly. 

Never  neglect  to  empty  the  dust  chamber.  Keep  the  ma- 
chine properly  oiled.  A  punctured  bellows  or  a  leaky  dust 
strainer  will  cause  dust  to  escape  after  being  drawn  into  the 
machine.  These  have  to  be  remedied  with  new  parts.  Some 
machines  leak  because  of  improper  manipulation,  such  as  a 
too-fast  or  too- jerky  motion  in  operating  them.  The  direc- 
tions for  each  machine  tell  how  to  use  it — such  directions 
cannot  be  given  here  because  they  differ  so  much. 

When  the  pan  has  become  over-full  of  dirt,  the  machine  will 
necessarily  throw  out  dust  as  well  as  air.  Letting  the  machine 


150 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


get  over-full  of  dust  may  ruin  the  machine  by  making  some 
part  leak  continuously. 

189.  Difference  Between  Hand  and  Power  Cleaners. 

Power  machines  differ  from  hand  ones  in  that  they  are  run  by 
motor  power  (Figs.  99  and  99-a).    They  may  have  larger 

collecting  chambers  and  may  be 
stationary  in  the  cellar  and  con- 
nected to  the  rooms  by  long 
pipes  (Fig.  100).  They  must 
likewise  not  be  over-full  of  dust. 
They  must  be  kept  properly 
adjusted.  As  the  operation  of 
the  mechanism  shakes  the  ma- 
chine, it  may  loosen  screws  and 
nuts,  so  they  must  be  kept 
tightened.  The  motor  must 
also  be  kept  in  order.  The  mo- 
tors used  for  vacuum  cleaners 
are  the  same  as  those  used  on 
other  power  devices.  They  may 
be  small  electric  motors,  forming  a  part  of  the  machine,  or 
large  motors  which  operate  several  machines. 

In  any  case,  they  must  be  given  the  same  care  as  any  other 
motor  of  the  same  type.  (See  Chapter  XXXVIII.)  If  they 
become  overheated,  they  will  not  work  well.  They  must  be 
kept  lubricated  to  avoid  friction,  and  they  must  be  kept 
properly  adjusted.  Fig.  100-a  shows  a  number  of  different 
attachments  for  vacuum  cleaners. 

190.  Carpet  Sweeper.    A  carpet  sweeper  is  a  combina- 
tion of  brush  and  dust  pan.    The  advantage  of  this  device  is 


FIG.  99.   Electric  vacuum 
cleaner. 


VACUUM  CLEANERS 


151 


•Oil  Hole  fo'  Lubrication 
of  Top  Motor  Bearing. 


Fibre  Connector  Plug. 


Universal  Motor  in  Dome. 


Brass  RevolvinE  Bristle  Brush.  f    Hollo*  Steel  Brush  Shal 

Driving  Sleeve  Cleaning  Nozzle 


Rubber  C 

-          1ei  Wheel 

f  Rubber  Belt  for 

Automatic      Driving  Brush 
Dust  Check. 


FIG.  99-a.   Electric  vacuum  cleaner,  showing  parts. 


152 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


that  the  dust  is  gathered  into  the  machine  as  the  brush 
rotates,  due  to  the  action  of  the  wheels  on  which  the  machine 
moves.  The  dust  is  collected  into  pans  at  each  side  of  the 
brush;  these  are  covered  so  that  the  dust  does  not  fly  into  the 
air  as  much  as  otherwise  would  be  the  case  (Fig.  101). 

Oil  the  sweeper  regularly  about  once  a  month  by  putting 


FIG.  100.  Stationary  vacuum 
cleaner. 


FIG.  100-a.   Nozzles  for 
vacuum  cleaner. 


one  drop  of  oil  on  the  ball 
bearing  on  the  hub  of  each 
wheel.  Failure  to  oil  carpet 
sweepers  causes  them  to  wear 

out  quickly,  to  squeak,  and  to  run  hard.    More  oil  than  is 
needed  only  gathers  dust  and  gums  the  sweeper. 

Empty  the  sweeper  (Fig.  102)  each  time  it  is  used,  even 
during  the  sweeping  if  necessary.     Don't  fill  it  to  overflowing. 


OIL"CYCO"BAU  BEARINGS  HERE 

FIG.  101.   Section  of  carpet 
sweeper. 


VACUUM  CLEANERS 


153 


Always  open  the  pans  by  pressing  on  the  dump  levers,  not  by 
taking  hold  of  the  pans.  Don't  let  the  brush  get  tangled  with 
hair,  ravelings,  etc.  Take  it  out  occasionally  and  clean  it 
(Figs.  103  and  103-a).  Cut  along  between  the  spiral  rows  of 


FIG.  102.   Emptying  sweeper. 


FIG.  103.   Releasing  brush  in 
sweeper. 


bristles  with  a  sharp  knife  or  shears,  and  the  ravelings  and 
hairs  can  be  picked  or  combed  out  easily  without  injuring  the 
brush  (Fig.  104).  Never  try  to  pull  them  off  whole.  Also 


FIG.  103-a.    Details  of  construc- 
tion of  carpet  sweeper. 


CUT 

RAVELINGS 
BEFORE  PULLING  OFF 

FIG.  104.    Cut  ravelings 
from  brush. 


remove  any  accumulation  of  dirt  or  ravelings  which  catch  in 
the  wheels  or  bearings.  Don't  let  dirt  collect  in  any  part  of 
the  machine.  Keep  it  clean.  Good  sweepers  work  best  with- 
out extreme  pressure  on  the  handle.  Never  put  oil,  water  or 
any  liquid  on  the  bristles.  Don't  keep  a  sweeper  on  a  warm- 
air  register — it  takes  the  life  out  of  the  bristles. 


154 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


191.  Mop  Wringers.  There  are  two  kinds  of  mop  wring- 
ers to  attach  to  pails.  One  is  made  of  two  flat  surfaces  which, 
when  pressed  together  with  the  mop  between  (Fig.  105), 
squeeze  the  water  out  of  it,  and  the  other  is  made  of  two 


FlG.  105.   Mop  wringer. 


FIG.  106.  Another  type  of 
mop  wringer. 


wringer  rollers  which,  when  brought  together  by  a  lever  after 
the  mop  is  put  between  them,  rotate  as  the  mop  is  pulled  up- 
ward and  wring  out  the  water  (Fig.  106). 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  VII 

\ 

1.  How  do  vacuum  cleaners  pick  up  dust? 

2.  Describe  some  type  of  vacuum  cleaner. 

3.  What  care  should  be  given  a  vacuum  cleaner? 

4.  Tell  how  to  clean  a  carpet  sweeper. 


PART  VIII 

DEVICES  FOR  PREPARATION  AND  CON- 
SERVATION OF  FOOD 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
POTS,  PANS,  AND  OTHER  DEVICES 

192.  Materials  from  Which  Utensils  Are  Made.  Since 
there  is  considerable  choice  in  utensils  made  from  different 
materials,  the  housekeeper  may  like  to  know  something  about 
these  materials  and  about  their  care,  and  the  effect  of  acids 
and  alkalis  upon  them. 

Russia  iron  is  one  of  the  older  materials  for  pots  and  pans, 
and  it  still  holds  a  place  in  cookery,  for  it  makes  bread,  loaf 
cake  and  cooky  pans,  which  give  to  the  food  a  thin,  brown 
crust,  due,  undoubtedly,  to  the  way  in  which  it  conducts 
heat.  (See  tables  on  page  158.) 

Tinned  metal,  which  is  well  tempered,  also,  gives  a  thin, 
brown  crust  to  layer  cakes  and  pies.  It  makes  good  bread, 
loaf  cake  and  cooky  pans.  Most  of  the  cheap  tin  of  today  is 
iron-coated  with  very  little  tin.  It  does  good  work,  but 
utensils  made  of  it  cannot  be  kept  as  well  polished  and  as  at- 
tractive in  appearance  as  more  heavily-tinned  ones. 

Sheet  iron,  heavy  steel  and  cast  iron  make  the  most  pop- 
ular frying  pans.  The  heavy  iron,  holding  heat  as  it  does, 
makes  a  desirable  brown  coating  on  most  foods  without  the 
danger  of  burning  experienced  with  frying  pans  of  other 


156  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

materials.  This  is  due  to  specific  heat  and  conductivity  of 
the  metal.  Sheet-iron  frying  pans  are  useful  in  cooking  foods 
which  are  wanted  on  short  notice.  The  small-sized  ones  are 
most  in  use. 

193.  Aluminum  Alloy.    Satisfactory  frying  pans  are 
made  from  aluminum  alloyed  with  other  metal  and  cast. 
Real  aluminum  frying  pans  warp.    They  do  not  brown  the 
food  as  well  as  materials  that  conduct  heat  less  rapidly. 

194.  Cast-iron  Utensils.     Heavy  cast  iron  finds  special 
favor  in  the  making  of  pot  roasts,  bread  sticks  and  popovers. 
It  browns  the  roast  and  makes  a  thick  crust  on  bread  sticks 
and  popovers. 

All  iron  or  tin  utensils  give  better  service  as  they  become 
tempered  with  use.  They  must  be  kept  dry  in  order  to  pre- 
vent rust.  Do  not  use  them  for  cooking  acid  foods. 

Granite,  cast  aluminum  and  Russia  iron  are  the  popular 
and  satisfactory  materials  for  roasting  pans. 

195.  Earthenware.     For  casseroles  and  bean  pots, earth- 
enware is  a  favorite  material,  tho  heavy  glass  gives  equally 
good  results.    These  materials  are  fitted  for  long,  slow  baking 
of  food.    They  hold  heat  and  conduct  it  to  the  food  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  results  which  are  difficult  to  duplicate  with 

^utensils  of  other  materials. 

x  I  196.  Aluminum  and  Granite  ware.  Stew  pans  are 
proving  satisfactory  when  made  of  aluminum  and  of  high- 
grade  graniteware.  An  assortment  of  pans  and  double  boil- 
ers containing  utensils  of  each  material  gives  the  best  results, 
as  the  granite  is  most  desirable  for  cooking  some  acid  and  very 
salty  food,  while  aluminum  is  light  and  satisfactory  for  pre- 


POTS,  PANS,  AND  OTHER  DEVICES  157 

paring  other  dishes.  Never  let  food  stand  in  aluminum  or 
granite  dishes  after  being  cooked.  High-grade  graniteware 
is  not  as  readily  affected  by  acids  as  the  low,  cheap  grade. 
Enameled  ware,  which  is  roughened  by  a  dilute  solution  of 
vinegar,  is  likely  to  contain  substances  injurious  to  health. 
Ink  will  not  stain  good  enameled  ware.  Graniteware,  like 
glass  and  earthenware,  makes  a  heavy  crust  on  the  dishes 
being  baked  in  them.  Graniteware  is  metal,  coated  with  a 
sort  of  glass.  It  must  be  treated  like  glass.  It  cracks  when 
dropped.  Never  set  it  on  a  hot  stove  when  empty  or  cold,  as 
the  heat  of  the  stove  will  crack  it  as  it  will  glass.  When  hot, 
do  not  set  it  on  a  cold  marble  or  a  metal  table  top,  as  sudden 
changes  in  temperature  will  crack  it.  With  proper  care, 
granite  and  enameled  ware  give  good  service. 

Graniteware  is  proving  desirable  for  making  utensils  for 
use  on  electric  stoves,  the  conductivity  of  the  glass  coat- 
ing being  so  low,  that  it  conducts  the  heat  to  the  top  of  the 
pan  slowly  so  the  food  in  it  gets  to  cooking  quicker  than  in 
utensils  made  of  most  of  the  other  materials. 

Aluminum  is  easily  dented  and  warped  by  extreme  heat. 
It  is  attacked  by  some  strong  acids  and  strong  solutions  of 
salt,  soda  and  fruit  juices.  Aluminum  may  be  hardened  by 
the  addition  of  six  to  seven  per  cent  of  copper  so  that  it  can  be 
cast  into  utensils.  Great  care  must  be  used  not  to  use  clean- 
ing powders  which  contain  strong  alkalis  for  cleaning  alumi- 
num ware.  It  has  light  weight,  and,  when  polished,  is  very 
attractive.  With  proper  handling,  it  gives  good  service. 

197.  Mixing  Spoons.  The  wooden  mixing  spoon  gives 
best  results,  as  it  does  not  mar  the  utensils,  and  the  handle 
does  not  become  as  hot  as  metal.  Hard  maple  or  orange 


158 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


wood  cut  in  a  plain  design  makes  the  best  spoon.  Acids  do 
not  attack  it.  Plated  silver  or  solid  nickel  spoons  come  next 
in  usefulness.  Softer  metals  wear  off  too  fast  to  be  satisfac- 
tory. 

Nickel  is  a  most  desirable  material  for  household  utensils, 
but  is  very  expensive.  It  is  not  in  common  use  in  this  coun- 
try. 

TABLE  SHOWING  CONDUCTIVITY  AND  SPECIFIC  HEAT 
OF  METALS 


METAL 

CONDUCTIVITY 

SPECIFIC  HEAT 

Silver  

1.00 

0.0559 

Copper  
Aluminum  
Tin  
Iron                         

.74 
.48 
.15 
.12 

.0923 
.2022 
.0509 
.1098 

Glass 

.0017 

Silicon 

.159    at    10°  C. 

Nickel                          

.2029  at  232°  C. 
.1084 

Tungsten  

.035 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
PARERS,  SEEDERS,  GRINDERS,  SLICERS,  ETC. 

198.  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Parers  with  Knives.  Parers 
of  the  type  with  a  knife  have  a  fork-like  device  on  which  the 
fruit  or  vegetable  is  held  while  a  knife  blade,  attached  to  a 
shaft  governed  by  a  spring,  is  pressed  against  the  fruit  or  vege- 
table so  that  it  cuts  off  a  thin  layer  of  the  surface.  Both  the 
fruit  and  the  knife  are  caused  to  ro- 
tate so  that  the  whole  surface  of  the 
sphere-like  object  will  be  covered  by 
the  blade  of  the  knife  during  one  or 
more  revolutions  of  the  wheel  which 
operates  them  (Fig.  107).  The  knife 
is  guarded  so  that  it  cuts  only  a  thin 
layer  from  the  outer  surface  of  the 
fruit  or  vegetable.  After  the  knife 
has  made  the  complete  journey  over  FlG- 107-  Parer- 
the  surface,  a  device  attached  to  the  machine  pushes  the  ob- 
ject from  the  fork  so  that  a  new  one  may  be  put  in  its  place. 
Parers  are  quite  complicated  devices,  but  they  have  been  per- 
fected so  that  they  are  not  clumsy,  and  some  can  core  apples, 
stone  peaches  and  slice  the  fruit. 

Keep  this  type  of  machine  dry  so  that  it  will  not  rust.  Do 
not  put  it  into  water.  Wipe  off  the  blade  of  the  knife  and  the 
fork  when  thru  paring,  so  that  the  acid  of  the  fruit  will  not 
discolor  them  and  dull  the  knife.  Keep  the  other  parts  dry 
and  oiled.  In  time  the  spring  governing  the  knife  becomes 


160  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

weak  and  the  machine  will  not  do  good  work.  This  spring 
can  be  replaced  on  some  machines.  Parers  are  usually  made 
of  cheap  material  so  that  a  new  machine  costs  less  than 
the  repairs. 

199.    Parers  Which  Grate  Off  Skins.    Another  type  of 
parer  is  a  grater-like  device.    This  is  used  in  larger  establish- 
ments than  the  ordinary 
home,  but  is  useful  where 
there   is  much  canning 
of  hard  fruits  or  vegetables 
to  be  done  at  home.    It 
consists  of  a  container, 


FIG.  108.    Cherry  stoner.  FIG.  109.   Grinder. 

the  inside  of  which  is  rough  like  a  grater.  The  vegetables 
or  apples  are  put  into  the  container  with  water  enough  to 
float  and  separate  them,  and  the  whole  is  agitated  so  that 
the  vegetables  coming  against  the  sides  have  the  outer 
surface  removed  or  grated  off.  The  water  acts  as  the 
medium  for  moving  the  vegetables  and  for  removing  the  bits 
of  skin  from  the  sides  of  the  parer. 

Keep  this  parer  clean  by  scrubbing  the  inside  with  a  stiff 
brush  and  rinsing  well  with  water  after  using.  Keep  in  a  dry 
place. 


PARERS,  SEEDERS,  GRINDERS,  SLICERS 


161 


200.  Seeders  and  Stoners.  Seeders  and  stoners  are 
constructed  to  punch  out  the  seeds  which  are  contained  in 
cherries,  grapes,  raisins,  etc. 


FIG.  110.   Parts  of  Corona  grinder. 

201.  Cherry  Stoner.  A  simple  cherry  stoner  (Fig.  108) 
consists  of  a  small  platform  with  a  rod  slightly  smaller  in 
diameter  than  a  cherry  stone.  The  cherry  is  put  on  an  in- 
clined plane  so  that  it  rolls  over  the  hole.  The  cherry  usually 
stays  on  the  rod  until  this  rod  is  lifted ;  then  it  passes  between 
two  guards  which  pushes  the  cherry  off  on  another  incline, 
where  it  rolls  into  a  pan  (Fig.  108). 


162  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

There  are  several  makes  of  stoners,  but  most  of  them 
work  on  this  principle,  whether  the  rod  is  lifted  by  hand  or 
moved  by  a  crank. 


i 

i 


o 


FIG.  111.   Parts  of  Universal  grinder. 

202.  Grinders.     Grinders  are  of  two  principal  types — 
the  roller  and  the  burr.    Coffee  and  other  hand  mills  are  of 
the  burr  type  (Figs.  109  and  110).    The  food  passing  between 
these  rough  surfaces  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder  as  one  is 
turned  on  the  other. 

203.  Choppers  or  Meat  Grinders.    Choppers  or  meat 
grinders,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  consist  of  a  spiral 


PARERS,  SEEDERS,  GRINDERS,  SLICERS 


163 


channel,  thru  which  the  food  is  pushed  along.  Knives  are 
placed  in  the  sides  of  some  machines  to  chop  the  food  as  it 
passes,  while  in  others  the  knives  are  only  at  the  outlet. 
Keep  the  fingers  out  of  the  hopper 
when  the  chopper  is  being  operated. 
Keep  the  machine  clean  and  dry 
when  not  in  use  (Fig.  111). 

204.  Choppers.  Choppers  have 
been  made  which  really  chop  the 
food  without  crushing  it,  but  these 
machines  are  so  clumsy  and  noisy,  FlG- 112-  Vegetable  slicer. 
that  they  have  not  come  into  common  household  use.  They 
consist  of  chopping  knives  which  are  raised  and  lowered 

by  levers  and  a  crank. 

205.  Slicer s.     Slicers  vary  in 
design.  The  following  illustrations 
(Figs.  112  and  113)  show  two  dif- 
ferent types.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  guard  the  fingers  when  using 
slicers.  Wash  the  knives  and  keep 
them  dry  when  not  in  use.    A 
soiled  knife  gets  dull  faster  than  a 
clean,  dry  one. 

206.  Lard  and  Fruit  Presses ; 
Sausage   Stuffers.    Presses  and 

FIG.  113.  Universal  vege-  stuffers  are  of  two  types — the  one 
table  slicer.  .  , 

which   depends  on   the   weight 

exerted  on  a  long  lever,  and  the  other  which  depends  on  a 
screw  to  press  the  substances.  The  screw  forces  a  flat  board 
or  surface  down  upon  the  food  as  it  is  turned.  More  pressure 


164 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


for  the  size  of  the  device  can  be  secured  with  the  screw 
than  is  practical  with  a  weight  on  the  long  arm  of  a  lever 


FIG.  114.  Lard  and  fruit  press. 

(Fig.  114).    The  stuff er  is  like  a  press,  except  that  the  food 
is  forced  out  one  hole. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
MIXERS,  BEATERS  AND  CHURNS;  COFFEE  POTS 

207.  Use  of  Mixers,  Beaters  and  Churns.  Mixers, 
beaters  and  churns  are  all  devices  for  agitating  or  stirring 
food. 

The  simpler  ones  of  these  devices  depend  upon  the  motion 
of  the  hand  (Fig.  115),  while  others  have  their  velocity  in- 
creased by  means  of  cog 
wheels. 

The  turning  of  the  large 
wheel  turns  the  small  wheel 
as  many  times  as  number 
of  cogs  on  the  small  wheel 
is  contained  in  the  number 
on  the  large  wheel  (see  Fig. 

116).    To  get  even  more        ^  m    partg  rf  brea<J  mixer 
speed  or  to  apply  the 

power  at  a  different  angle,  a  series  of  wheels  are  sometimes 
used.  A  few  mixers,  like  the  bread  mixer,  are  simply  ma- 
chines which  take  the  hands  out  of  the  food,  thus  tending 
to  a  higher  degree  of  sanitation,  and  a  change  in  the 
motion  which  may  not  be  so  tiring  as  kneading.  They  do 
not  increase  the  speed  of  mixing. 

Bread  made  in  a  mixer  has  a  somewhat  different  texture 
than  bread  kneaded  by  hand,  but  this  does  not  change  its  nu- 
tritive value. 

208.  Care  of  These  Devices.  The  principal  care  needed 
by  these  devices  is  that  they  be  kept  clean  and  the  cog  wheels 


166 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


dry.  Very  little  oil  should  be  used,  as  it  would  tend  to  get  it 
into  the  food.  Sometimes  the  rivet  holding  a  wheel  needs  to 
be  tightened,  as,  for  example,  when  one  becomes  so  loose  that 
the  wheel  slips  cogs.  If  it  is  too  tight,  the  wheel  may  bind 
and  work  hard. 

209.    Freezers.    The  freezer  is  a  mixer  in  a  can  which  is 

in  turn  set  in  a  freezing  mix- 
ture of  ice  and  salt. 

Freezing  can  be  done  with- 
out stirring  the  cream.  This 
makes  a  cream  filled  with 
crystals,  while  if  stirred,  it 
will  be  smooth  and  velvety 
because  it  freezes  more  even- 
ly. The  rapidity  of  freezing 
and  the  proportion  of  the 
ice  and  salt  affect  the  fine- 
ness of  the  grain  of  the  frozen 
dish. 

A  freezer  is  designed  not 
only  to  stir  the  food,  but  to 
scrape  it  from  the  sides  of  the 
can.  That  which  freezes  first  must  be  stirred  into  the  middle 
of  the  can;  otherwise,  it  would  form  a  hard  frozen  layer  of 
cream  on  the  sides,  leaving  the  middle  unfrozen,  and  interfere 
with  the  turning  of  the  paddle  or  beater. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  outside  bucket,  holding  the  ice  and 
salt,  is  a  socket  into  which  the  pivot  on  the  bottom  of  the  can 
fits.  The  can  turns  on  this  pivot  in  the  direction  opposite 
to  which  the  paddle  is  turning.  Some  freezers  are  made  so 


FIG.  116.  View  showing  internal 
arrangement  of  cake  mixer. 


MIXERS,  BEATERS  AND  CHURNS;  COFFEE  POTS    167 

that  the  can  stays  stationary.  The  function  of  the  pivot  is 
then  to  hold  the  can  in  the  center  of  the  pail  so  that  the  paddle 
will  be  in  the  proper  position  to  turn  easily. 

210.  Care  of  Freezers.    The  pail  of  wood  should  not  be 
stored  in  a  very  dry  place  when  not  in  use.    The  can  and  pad- 
dle must  be  kept  clean  and  dry  so  that  they  will  not  rust. 
The  bearings  and  wheels  which  turn  the  paddle  and  can  must 
be  kept  dry  and  oiled. 

There  is  a  hole  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tub  or  pail  in  which 
the  can  sets,  and  this  should  be  kept  open  as  it  is  placed 
slightly  below  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  can  so  as  to  drain  off 
any  water  from  the  melting  ice  which  otherwise  might  get 
into  the  can  and  make  the  food  salty. 

Some  freezers  have  another  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub. 
This  should  be  kept  closed  while  food  is  being  frozen.  It  is 
useful  to  drain  off  the  water  from  the  tub  when  the  freezer  is 
to  be  repacked  or  emptied.  It  should  not  be  opened  at  any 
other  time. 

211.  Churns.     Churning  can  be  done  with  almost  any 
device  which  agitates  the  cream,  but  the  churns  which  are 
simplest  are  most  easily  cleaned  and  least  wasteful  of  butter. 
They  are  barrels  or  other  containers  which  revolve  or  swing 
backward  and  forward. 

Keep  churns  clean  and  well  aired  so  they  will  not  give  up 
odors  and  flavors  to  the  butter.  After  a  churn  has  been  used, 
rinse  it  with  cold  water  and  then  wash  it  in  hot  water,  to 
which  washing  soda  has  been  added.  Lastly,  rinse  with 
scalding  water.  Leave  open  to  air  when  not  in  use,  but  pro- 
tect from  dust  and  dirt. 

212.  Drip  Coffee  Pots.    Drip  coffee  is  made  in  a  funnel 


168 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


or  a  cup-shaped  device  which  is  suspended  in  a  coffee  pot  (Fig. 
117).  This  is  made  either  of  cloth  or  perforated  metal.  The 
coffee  is  pulverized  and  packed  into  the  funnel.  Cold  water 
is  poured  on  top  of  the  coffee  and  slowly  filters  thru  it,  ex- 
tracting flavoring  substances.  The  water  is 
heated  after  it  has  filtered  thru  the  coffee. 
213.  Percolator  Coffee  Pots.  A  cof- 
fee percolator  is  a  device  put  in  a  coffee 
pot  to  hold  the  ground  coffee  above  the 
water  and  pump  some  of  the  water  to  the 

FIG.  117.  Drip  fun-  top  of  the  pot  so  that  it  can  seep  back 
nel  in  percolator.    . 

down  thru  the  ground  coffee  (Fig.  118). 

A  perforated  cup  with  a  perforated  cover  holds  the  coffee. 
Thru  the  center  of  this  cup  passes  a  small  tube  to  the  top  of 


FIG.  118.  Percolator. 

the  pot.  At  the  bottom  of  the  tube  is  a  flat  plate  with  turned- 
down  edges  or  other  device  which  supports  the  pipe  and  rests 
on  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  A  small  amount  of  water  gets  un- 
der this  and  into  the  pipe.  The  heat  in  the  stove  turns  the 


MIXERS,  BEATERS  AND  CHURNS;  COFFEE  POTS    169 

water  next  the  bottom  to  steam,  and  this  steam,  in  escaping, 
forces  the  water  in  the  pipe  to  the  top  of  the  pot,  and  raises 
the  device  slightly  so  that  more  water  flows  under  it  and  into 
the  pipe,  and  again  steam  is  formed  and  more  water  forced  to 
the  top  of  the  pot.  (See  Sec.  161,  Suction  Washers.)  After 
being  forced  out  of  the  top  of  the  pipe,  the  water  falls  in  a 
spray  on  the  cover  of  the  cup  and  seeps  down  thru  the  coffee 
back  into  the  main  part  of  the  coffee  pot.  The  pumping  de- 
vices in  percolators  may  differ  somewhat  in  design,  but  the 
working  principle  is  the  same — that  steam  is  lighter  than 
water  and  can  be  generated  in  amounts  which  will  force  water 
up  thru  the  central  tube. 

Coffee  grounds  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  into  the  small 
tube,  for  they  will  hinder  the  flow  of  the  water.  The  holes  in 
the  cup  and  cover  must  be  kept  open.  There  is  less  waste  in 
using  finely-ground  coffee  than  the  coarsely-ground  in  perco- 
lators. A  small  tube  brush  is  needed  for  cleaning  percolators. 
The  coffee  must  not  be  ground  so  fine  that  it  will  sift  thru  the 
perforations  in  the  cup. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
DISH-WASHERS,  CANNERS  AND  DRYERS 

Tho  dish-washers  (Fig.  119)  have  found  a  place  in  hotels 
and  large  establishments,  they  are  still  in  the  experimental 
stage  for  general  household  use. 

Small  machines  on  the  market,  patterned  after  the  hotel 


FIG.  119.   Dish-washer. 

type,  are  giving  good  results  for  home  use.  When  using  these 
machines,  place  the  dishes  in  them  in  the  manner  directed  and 
use  as  much  water  as  is  called  for. 

Some  dish  washers  work  on  the  plan  of  revolving  the  dishes 
in  the  water,  some  in  forcing  the  water  over  the  dishes,  and 
others  by  agitation  of  both  dishes  and  water. 


DISH-WASHERS,  CANKERS  AND  DRYERS 


171 


FIG.  119-a.    Small  dish-washer 
for  household  use. 


Keep  the  pan  washed  clean.  Keep  all  bearings  properly 
oiled.  Have  the  machine  dry  when  not  in  use.  There  is 
least  breakage  in  the  washers  which  hold  the  dishes  station- 
ary (Figs.  119,  -a,  -b  and  -c). 

One  type  of  dish-washer  has 
no  motor;  the  force  of  the  run- 
ning water  washes  the  dishes. 
This  can  only  be  used  where 
the  water  supply  is  abundant 
and  under  considerable  pres- 
sure. The  washers  equipped 
with  paddles  for  throwing  the 
water  over  the  dishes  use  about  a  dishpanful  of  water  for 
washing  the  dishes,  and  as  much  more  for  scalding  and  rinsing 

them.  When  well  scalded  in  the 
dish-washer,  the.  dishes  will  dry  if 
the  cover  to  the  washer  is  left  open. 

214.  Dish  Dryer.  There  is 
a  number  of  dish  dryers  on  the 
market  which  hold  the  dishes  sep- 
arate from  each  other.  Into  these 
dryers,  boiling  hot  water  is  poured, 
over  the  dishes.  There  is  provi- 
sion for  the  water  being  drained 
away  immediately,  and  the  heat 
it  imparts  to  the  dishes  dries  them. 
(Fig.  119-c.) 

215.  Cleaning  Silver.  Silver  can  be  cleaned  in  an  alu- 
minum pan  filled  with  water  and  soda.  There  are  silver 
cleaners  which  are  merely  aluminum  pans  with  which  come 


FIG.  119-6.  Walker  dish- 
washer. 


172  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

directions  for  proportioning  the  soda  and  the  water.  A  mix- 
ture of  salt  and  baking  soda  is  sometimes  used,  combined  with 
a  piece  of  zinc  in  an  aluminum  pan.  The  salt,  soda,  zinc  and 


FIG.  119-c.  Tray  for  holding  dishes. 

silver  are  put  into  the  aluminum  pan  and  set  on  the  stove. 
The  action  of  the  salt  and  soda  on  the  metals  produces  an 
electrolytic  action  which  brightens  the  silver. 

Do  not  use  this  method  of  cleaning  on  gray  or  colored  silver. 

216.     Canners.    Canners  are  devices  for  sterilizing  fruit 
and  other  food  which  is  being  canned.    The  wash-boiler  type 


FIG.  120.   Water  bath  canner. 

consists  of  a  boiler  or  kettle  with  a  rack  in  the  bottom  to  raise 
the  jars  an  inch  or  so  from  its  bottom  to  prevent  the  cracking 


DISH-WASHERS,  CANNERS  AND  DRYERS 


173 


FIG.  120-a.   Small 
canning  outfit. 


of  the  jars.  It  has  a  cover  to  keep  the  heat  uniform.  The 
water  in  the  canner  must  entirely  cover  the  jar.  This  is 
usually  called  a  water  bath,  as  the  jars  must  be  completely 
submerged  in  the  water  (Figs.  120  and  120-a). 

217.  Water  Seal.    Water-seal  canners  are  like  the  water- 
bath  canners,  except  that  the  cover  has  a  flange  on  it,  the 
depth  of  the  boiler,  and  about  two  inches  from  the  sides  of  it. 
This  makes  a  jacket  of  water  between 

the  flange  and  sides  of  the  canner.    This 

causes  the  temperature   inside  to  rise 

about  two  degrees  above  the  ordinary 

temperature  of  boiling  water.    Food  can 

be  sterilized  in  a  little  shorter  time  in 

this  canner  than  in  the  ordinary  water 

bath.    It  is  as  important  that  the  water  entirely  cover  the 

jar  in  this  canner  as  in  the  water  bath. 

218.  Pressure  Canners.    Pressure  canners  are  made 

very  strong  and  have  covers  which  fit 
tight,  making  it  possible  to  raise  the 
temperature  in  them  considerably 
above  the  boiling  temperature  of 
water,  so  the  food  may  be  sterilized 
in  a  very  short  time. 

The  pressure  canner  has  either  a 
rack  or  a  perforated  pail  on  the  in- 
side to  raise  the  jars  from  the  bottom 
as  in  other  canners.  It  is  also  fitted 
with  a  steam  gage  which  registers 

the  pounds  of  pressure  in  the  canner. 
FIG.  121.  Pressure  can- 
ner  showing  pet  cock.       r  ive  to  fifteen   pounds  pressure  is 


174  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

used  for  canning.  The  amount  of  pressure  needed  and  the 
time  of  sterilizing  depends  on  the  organism  present.  A 
higher  pressure  is  an  indication  of  a  higher  temperature  in 
the  canner.  After  the  jars  are  filled  and  put  in  the  canner, 
the  cover  is  fastened  down  tight  by  thumb-screws.  There  is  a 
pet  cock  which  is  kept  open  when  the  canner  is  first  heating, 
to  let  the  air  be  forced  out  by  the  first  steam  which  forms.  As 
soon  as  the  steam  begins  to  escape,  the  pet  cock  is  closed  and 
the  temperature  inside  of  the  canner  begins  to  rise  above  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  (Fig.  121). 

On  the  canner  is  a  safety  valve  which  is  set  so  that  the  in- 
stant a  certain  number  of  pounds  of  pressure  is  reached,  it  is 
lifted  up  by  the  steam.  Some  of  the  steam  then  escapes,  thus 
preventing  the  pressure  in  the  canner  becoming  so  great  that 
there  is  danger  of  its  exploding. 

219.  Use  of  the  Canner.  Water  is  put  into  the  canner 
to  reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  rack.  The  jars  are  filled  accord- 
ing to  canning  directions  and  are  set  in  the  canner.  When 
the  jars  are  in,  the  cover  is  adjusted  to  the  canner  and  screwed 
on  tight  so  that  no  steam  will  escape  between  the  cover  and 
the  canner.  The  pet  cock  is  left  open  until  steam  begins  to 
escape  thru  it  as  the  canner  is  heating  on  the  stove.  When 
steam  begins  to  come,  the  pet  cock  should  be  closed,  and  the 
steam-gage  hand  then  begins  to  turn,  indicating  that  the 
pressure  in  the  canner  is  rising. 

When  the  steam  gage  reaches  the  point  desired,  the  safety 
valve  is  adjusted  so  that  the  steam  will  escape  should  the 
pressure  continue  to  rise.  Until  the  operator  knows  where  to 
set  the  weight  to  the  safety  valve,  leave  it  well  out  to  the  end 
of  the  rod  until  the  pressure  in  the  canner  has  reached  the  de- 


DISH-WASHERS,  CANNERS  AND  DRYERS 


175 


sired  point.     Then  move  the  weight  to  the  point  on  the  arm 
of  the  valve  which  will  just  keep  in  the  steam. 

Be  sure  the  cover  is  properly  adjusted.    Be  sure  to  exhaust 
the  air  from  the  canner  before  closing  the  pet  cock.     Keep  the 
fire  so  that  the  desired  pressure  will  be  maintained  without 
the  escape  of  steam 
from  the  safety  valve. 
When  steam  escapes 
from  the  canner  thru 
the  pet   cock   at   a 
rapid    rate,    it   may 
cause  liquid  to  flow 
out  of  the  jars. 

Be  certain  to  let 
the  canner  cool  until 
the  indicator  on  the 
steam  gage  has 
reached  zero  before 
opening  the  canner. 
When  the  indicator 
points  to  zero,  open 
the  pet  cock.  If  a  heavy  stream  of  steam  starts  to  escape 
from  it,  close  it  again  and  wait  a  few  minutes  longer.  Test 
again  by  opening  the  pet  cock;  if  a  very  little  stream  of  steam 
escapes,  leave  the  pet  cock  open  and  wait  until  steam  has 
stopped  escaping  from  it.  Now  loosen  the  screws  holding 
the  cover  in  place.  Partially  loosen  each  screw.  When  this 
is  done,  fully  loosen  all  and  lift  off  the  cover.  These  precau- 
tions are  taken  to  prevent  the  operator  from  being  burned 
by  steam  or  getting  hurt  by  the  cover  being  lifted  by  the 

12 


FIG.  122.    Device  for  sealing  tin  can. 


176  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

• 

steam.     It  also  prevents  the  breaking  of  glass  jars  due  to 
sudden  pressure  changes. 

Never  let  the  canner  cool  so  long  before  the  pet  cock  is 
opened  that  air  will  rush  into  it,  due  to  the  vacuum  which  is 
sure  to  form  when  the  steam  is  cooled  if  the  pet  cock  is  not 
opened.  Such  a  condition  may  break  the  jars. 

i  Tin  cans  are  sealed  with  a  de- 

vice (Fig.  122)  which  folds  the 
edge  of  the  cover  over  the  top  of 
the  can  so  tightly  it  will  not  leak. 


220.  Dryers.  Dryers  are  de- 
vices to  hold  the  food  being  dried 
in  a  thin  layer  so  that  the  air  can 

be  circulated  thru  it  freely.   Some- 
FIG.  123.   Dryer.  times  they  are   deyised   to   direct 

currents  of  air  thru  the  drying  material.     If  the  air  is  heated, 
the  drying  is  hastened  (Fig.  123). 

A  sieve  on  which  food  is  spread  hung  above  the  stove  is  a 
simple  drying  device  and  one  of  the  most  practical  for  home 
use.  The  heat  currents  rising  from  the  stove  pass  thru  this 
and  dry  the  food. 

Many  dryers  are  constructed  on  this  same  principle,  having 
a  heating  unit  below  and  trays  of  food  above.  These  trays 
have  to  be  shifted  from  time  to  time,  as  the  moisture  from  the 
lower  ones  rises  with  the  heat  to  the  upper  trays,  thus  retard- 
ing their  drying.  The  top  trays,  if  too  numerous,  are  useless 
on  this  account.  Two  or  three  seem  to  be  all  that  can  be  used 
with  advantage  at  one  time  in  home  dryers,  tho  some  machines 
are  made  with  many  more. 


DISH-WASHERS,  CANNERS  AND  DRYERS  177 

Another  type  of  dryer  has  a  fan  device  in  it  which  forces  the 
air  thru  at  a  faster  rate  than  would  be  accomplished  by  heat 
alone.  Such  air  should  pass  thru  a  strainer.  Ordinary  air, 
even  when  drawn  from  a  clean  room,  carries  much  dust  with 
it,  and  if  the  dust  is  not  strained  out  previously,  it  is  strained 
out  by  the  food.  This  injures  the  quality  of  the  product. 
Large  commercial  dryers  provide  such  a  strainer. 

221.  Care  of  Dryers.  Dryers  should  be  kept  clean. 
They  should  not  be  heated  enough  to  cook  the  food.  Set 
them  in  a  dry,  airy  place. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
SEPAKATORS  AND  EMULSIFIERS 

222.  Cream  Separators.    A  cream  separator  is  a  device 
for  separating  cream  from  milk.    Separation  can  be  done  best 
while  the  milk  is  still  warm  (Fig.  124). 

Separators  should  be  set  in  a  bright,  dry,  airy  place  free 
from  dust  and  dirt.  Near  the  separator  should  be  a  conven- 
ient place  for  airing  and  sunning  the  tin  parts  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  milk. 

The  base  for  the  separator  should  be  solid  enough  so  that  it 
will  not  shake  while  the  machine  is  being  operated.  If  set  on 
a  wooden  floor,  see  that  the  boards  are  nailed  in  place,  and  if 
the  floor  is  thin,  put  heavy  strips  to  cover  several  boards 
across  it.  Fasten  the  strips  firmly  to  the  floor  and  set  the 
separator  on  them.  When  the  machine  is  set  up,  be  sure 
that  it  is  set  level. 

223.  Different  Types  of  Separators.    There  are  two 
types  of  separators — one  which  contains  discs  of  metal  (Fig. 
125),  and  the  other  which  depends  upon  a  cylinder  in  which 
the  milk  rotates  (Fig.  124)  for  the  separation  of  the  cream 
from  the  skim  milk.    Fig.  126  shows  a  sectional  view  of  the 
DeLaval  separator. 

Cream  is  lighter  than  milk,  and  when  milk  and  cream  are 
whirled  rapidly,  the  milk,  being  heavier,  flies  to  the  outside  of 
the  container,  and  the  cream  stays  near  the  center.  Two 
pails  whirled  rapidly  made  the  first  separator  ever  used,  but 
that  was  clumsy  and  impractical. 


SEPARATORS  AND  EMULSIFIERS 


179 


Modern  separators  consist  of  a  pan  which  holds  the  milk, 
and  which  lets  it  flow  in  a  stream  into  the  portion  of  the  ma- 
chine which  is  being  whirled  rapidly  by  the  turning  of  the 


FIG.  124.   Cream  separator. 

wheel  at  the  side.  There  is  a  place  in  the  rotating  part  which 
lets  the  cream  flow  from  the  center  into  one  container,  and 
the  milk  flow  from  the  outside  to  another. 


180 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


The  parts  of  the  machine  must  be  fitted  together  properly; 
otherwise,  it  will  fail  to  do  good  work. 

Always  turn  the  wheel  at  the  speed  indicated  for  the  ma- 
chine with  discs.  If  there  is  no  speed  indicated,  turn  as  fast 
as  needed  for  good  separation  of  milk  and  cream.  Take  care 
not  to  drop  and  dent  any  of  the  tin  parts.  Adjust  for  the 
density  desired  for  the  cream. 

224.     Washing  the  Machine.    As  soon  as  milk  has  been 

skimmed  with  the  separa- 
tor, pour  some  water  into 
the  bowl  and  run  it  thru 
the  separator  the  same  as 
the  milk. 

Wash  the  bowl  and  other 
parts  in  hot  water  in  which 
washing  soda  has  been  dis- 
solved. Rinse  in  clear  wa- 
ter, and  then  scald  with 
boiling  water.  Once  a 
week  give  it  a  more  thoro 
washing,  scrubbing  all 
parts  with  a  brush.  Sun 


FIG.  125.    Discs  in  DeLaval  cream 
separator. 


the    parts  when  not  in 
use. 

225.  Oiling.     The  mechanical  parts  which  whirl  the 
separator  should  be  kept  oiled.     In  oiling,  follow  the  direc- 
tions which  come  with  the  machine.    Use  a  good  grade 
of  oil. 

226.  Whey  Separator.    A  whey  separator  is  a  machine 
very  much  similar  to  a  milk  and  cream  separator.     It  is 


SEPARATORS  AND  EMULSIFIERS 


181 


It 


used  in  homes  where  much  cheese  is  manufactured, 
should  be  given  the  same  care  as  other  separators. 

An  homogenizer  is  a  device  used  to  give  whole  milk  a  con- 
sistency which  is  much  like  cream. 


FlG.  126.  Sectional  view  of  separator. 

227.  Emulsifier.  The  emulsifier  is  a  device  for  com- 
bining dried  whole  milk  with  water,  or  dried  skim  milk  with 
water  and  butter  fat  so  that  they  make  a  reconstructed  milk 
of  almost  the  same  composition  as  new  milk.  An  emulsifier 


182  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

is  of  interest  to  the  woman  who  lives  in  the  city.  Emulsifiers 
are  used  in  large  institutions.  Some  have  been  installed  in 
settlement  houses  and  public  schools.  They  might  be  owned 
by  communities  where  people  might  use  a  large  amount  of 
dried  milk.  In  the  emulsifier,  the  milk,  water  and  sweet  but- 
ter are  warmed.  After  this,  they  pass  thru  a  device  looking 
much  like  a  separator,  but  which  mixes  the  ingredients  to- 
gether instead  of  separating  them.  From  the  mixer  the  milk 
passes  over  a  cooling  device,  and  is  ready  for  use.  This  ma- 
chine should  be  kept  clean,  and  the  parts  which  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  milk  scalded  out  with  hot  water  after  being 
rinsed  with  cold  water. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  VIII 

1.  What  metals  would  you  select  for  a  pan  to  use  when  a  thin  crust 
is  wanted?     What  materials  produce  thick  crusts? 

2.  For  what  purposes  would  you  choose  aluminum?     Granite?  Cast 
iron?   Glass?   Earthenware?    On  what  basis  would  you  make  a  choice 
of  utensils?     Why  wouldn't  glass  make  a  good  ice-cream  freezer? 

3.  What  are  the  essentials  of  good  parers,  slicers  and  corers? 

4.  What  kind  of  dish  washers  are  proving  the  most  helpful? 

5.  Describe  a  silver-cleaning  device.     Does  the  use  of  such  devices 
harm  the  silverware? 

6.  What  is  a  water-bath  canner  ?  How  would  you  make  one? 

7.  What  may  cause  glass  jars  in  pressure  cookers  to  break? 

8.  How  may  the  breakage  be  prevented ? 

9.  Explain  the  ways  in  which  cream  may  be  separated  from  milk. 
10.     How  do  separators  help? 


PART  IX 
SUNDRY  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  XXXII 
DUMBWAITERS  AND  OTHER  HOUSE  FURNISHINGS 

228.  Dumbwaiters  and  Window  Adjustments.  Dumb- 
waiters and  elevators  are  used  in  homes  where  the  kitchen  is 
on  a  different  floor  from  the  dining-room. 

The  simplest  ones  are  a  set  of  shelves  counterbalanced  by 
weights.    When  the  elevator  is  raised,  the 
weights  drop  down,  and  when  it  is  lowered, 
the  weights  rise. 

Window  weights  hung  over  a  pulley  in  the 
top  of  the  window  sash  work  on  the  same 
principle  as  dumbwaiters — the  weights  help 
in  raising  the  window.  The  only  care  need- 

ed  is  to  replace  the  rope  when  worn.  pulley  for  win- 

dows. 
Another  window  pulley  is  made  of  metal 

like  that  in  a  clock  spring  (Fig.  127) .  The  spring  is  drawn  out 
when  the  window  is  lowered,  and  the  weight  of  the  window 
is  just  enough  to  hold  it,  so  very  little  force  is  needed  to  raise 
the  window,  as  the  spring  is  pulling  on  it,  too. 

229.  Check  Valves.     Check  valves  are  made  to  prevent 
doors  from  slamming.    They  are  used  in  offices  and  public 
buildings,  and,  occasionally,  in  homes  (Fig.  128).    One  kind 
contains  glycerine  and  castor  oil,  which  move  from  one  com- 


184 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


partment  to  another  as  the  door  is  opened  and  slowly  flow 

back  as  a  spring  pulls  the  door  shut. 

The  other  kind  is  operated  by  compressed  air  and  a  spring. 

The  air  causes  the  steady  action  of  the  door  stop. 
Another  type  of  pneumatic  hinge  is  attached  to  a  door 

which  is  hung  so  that  it  would 
naturally  swing  shut.  When 
the  door  is  opened,  the  air  is 
exhausted  from  part  of  the 
hinge.  After  it  has  been 
opened,  the  slow  equalization 
of  the  air  inside  the  door  stop 
and  outside  allows  the  door  to 
close  slowly  without  slam- 
ming. 
230.  Door  Fastener.  A 


FlG.  128.   Check  valve. 


door  fastener  (Fig.  129)  is  a 
small  device  which  has  a 
strong  spring  on  the  inside.  When  the  spring 
is  released,  it  pushes  down  on  a  rod  which  is 
capped  with  rubber.  When  down,  this  comes 
in  contact  with  the  floor  and  holds  the  door  in 
place.  To  change  the  position  of  the  door,  a 
small  lever  is  used  to  lift  the  rod  and  compress 
the  spring,  thus  releasing  the  door  stop  from 
contact  with  the  floor. 

231.     Window  Shades.     Window  shades  FIG.  129.  Door 

holder. 
are  equipped  with  a  spring  in  one  end  of  the 

roller  to  aid  in  raising  it.     At  the  end  of  the  spring  is  a  flat 
bar  which  is  held  in  position  by  the  bracket  on  which  the 


DUMBWAITERS;  OTHER  HOUSE  FURNISHINGS      185 


shade  is  hung.  Small  catches  hold  the  curtain  when  it  is  at 
the  desired  position  (Fig.  130).  If  the  spring  becomes  weak, 
draw  the  curtain  down.  This  compresses  the  spring.  Stop 
so  that  the  clamps  always  fall  into  place  to  hold  it.  Then 
remove  the  curtain  from  the  brackets  and  roll  it  up  by  hand. 


FIG.  130.  Spring  in  curtain  roller. 

Place  it  back  on  the  brackets.  It  can  then  be  raised  or 
lowered  as  wanted,  and  will  work  with  more  power.  Take 
care  when  doing  this  not  to  wind  the  spring  so  tight  that 
it  will  draw  the  curtain  clear  around  the 
roller,  thus  letting  the  spring  unwind  or 
breaking  the  spring. 

232.  Hinges.     There  are  some  hinges 
which  should  be    of   interest   to   women. 
These  are  the  ones  for  doors  which  swing 
only  one  way,  and  for  those  which  swing 
both  out  and  in  (Fig.  131). 

233.  Sliding  Doors.     When  sliding  doors  slip  off  the 
slide,  they  may  be  replaced.    They  are  hung  like  a  barn  door. 
There  is  a  metal  track  above  the  door  between  the  walls. 
The  door  is  hung  on  this  track  by  pulleys  which  slide  along  the 
track.    Sometimes,  by  accident,  these  pulleys  are  slipped 
from  the  track.    The  door  then  must  be  lifted  so  that  the  pul- 
ley can  be  set  back  on  the  track.    Usually  the  door  needs  to  be 
lifted  but  a  fraction  of  an  inch  and  then  pushed  a  little  to  one 
side  or  the  other  to  get  the  pulley  into  place. 


FIG.  131.   Hinge. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SEWING  MACHINES 

234.     Different  Types  of  Sewing  Machines.     There  are 
two  types  of  sewing  machines  in  use  —  the  chain-stitch  and  the 

lock-stitch.  Sewing 
machines  are  made 
to  run  by  hand,  foot 
or  mechanical  motor 
power.  This  makes 
no  difference  in  de- 
sign or  care  of  the 
stitching  part  of  the 
machine.  Motor  and 
foot  power  run  the 
machine  faster  than 

V,r,n/1 
hand 


FIG.  132.   Lock-stitch  machine. 


1.  Bed  Slide 

2.  Presser  Foot 

3.  Presser  Foot  Thumb 
Screw 

4  .    Needle  Clamp 


17.  Face  Plate 

18.  Pressure    Regulating 
Thumb  Screw 

19.  Presser  Bar 

20.  Thread  Take-up  Lever 


_. 

I  he   treadle   Of  the 

foot-power  machines 


5.  Needle  Clamp  Thumb  21.     Thread  Guide 
Screw  22.     Arm 

6.  Needle   Bar   Thread  23.     Spool  Pin 

Guide  24.     Bobbin  Winder  Stop       SWingS        On 

7.  Needle  Bar  Bushing  Latch  _., 

8.  Thread  Cutter  25.     Belt  Cover  1  heS6  SnOUld  D6  kept 

9.  Face  Plate  Thumb  26.     Bobbin  Winder  Thread 

Screw  Guide  nilpH   J}nH    plp^Tl    "from 

10.  Slack  Thread  Regula-  27.     Balance  Wheel 

tor  28.     Bobbin  Winder  Pulley    v     4.  „     A  4-1*         ,4        rnu 

11.  Tension  Spring  29.     Bobbin  Winder  lint  and  thread.       1  he 

12.  Tension   Regulating  Spindle  1,1  n 

Thumb  Nut  30.  Bobbin  winder  Worm  large  and  the  small 

13.  Tension  Discs  Wheel 

14sprTngread Take"up          31ThumbscSwulating       wheels  for  the   belt 

\l\     Sr  Sifter  t     ?Soat  Plate  should     be      oiled      at 

34.     Feed  Plate  ,,  , 

the  axle. 

235.     Lock-Stitch    Sewing    Machine.     A    lock-stitch 
sewing  machine  (Figs.  132  and  133)  consists  of  shafts  and 


SEWING  MACHINES  187 

wheels  which  move  the  needle,  feed  plate  and  bobbin.  The 
top  thread  is  guided  from  spool  to  needle  thru  a  tension  so 
that  only  the  needed  amount  passes  forward  each  time  the 
needle  is  raised  after  the 
thread  has  caught  in  the  cloth. 
When  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  size  of  the  thread  used 
on  the  machine,  the  tension 
must  be  adjusted  to  fit  the 

thread,  unless  the  tension  is  FIG.  133.    Under  part  of  machine 

using  a  vibrating  shuttle. 
automatic.     If  the  tension  is 

not  properly  adjusted  or  the  machine  threaded  properly,  the 
thread  will  either  break,  tangle  at  the  needle  point,  or  draw 
the  top  thread  tighter  than  the  bottom  one  (Fig.  134). 

A  longer  stitch  is  needed  for  coarse  thread  than  for  fine 

thread. 

236.     Feed  Plate.    A  device  below  the  needle  called  the 

feed  plate  (No.  34,  Fig.  132)  shoves  the  cloth  faster  or  slower 

under  the  needle,  according  to  its  adjustment,  thus  mak- 
ing a  longer  or  shorter  stitch.  This 
device  is  a  rough  plate  which  moves 
backward  each  time  the  needle  is 
raised,  and  forward  again  when  the 
needle  comes  down.  While  moving 

Fic.134.  Diagramsshow-  backward,  the  rough  surface  moves 

ing  proper  tension.          t.        ,    ..     ,     .    .,     ,  ,.   ,  ,,      ,    , 

the  cloth,  but  it  drops  slightly  below 
the  level  of  the  table  as  it  moves  back  into  place,  so  does 
not  affect  the  cloth.  For  short  stitches,  it  moves  with  a 
short  stroke,  and  for  long  stitches,  with  a  long  stroke.  If  the 
feed  plate  becomes  gummed  with  lint  and  oil,  the  machine 


188 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


will  not  make  even  stitches  and  may  fail  to  move  the  cloth. 
Sometimes  it  will  fail  to  stitch.  Improper  threading  may  break 
the  needle  thread.  Too  tight  a  tension  may  break  it.  Too 
coarse  thread  for  the  size  of  the  needle 
may  break  the  needle.  A  bent,  blunt 
pointed  or  incorrectly  set  needle  may 
break. 

237.   Bobbins.   There  are  two  styles 
FiG.^135.  Shuttle  bob-  of  bobbins  used  on  lock-stitch  sewing 
machines— the  shuttle  bobbin  (Fig.  135) 
and  the  round  bobbin  (Fig.  136),  depending  on  the  particular 
type  of  machine  used. 

238.     Shuttle  Bobbins.     In  shuttle  bobbins,  there  is  a 
long  iron  spool  on  which  the  thread  is  wound.  This  is  put  into 

the  bobbin  with  the  twist  in 
the  direction  indicated  in  the 
book  of  directions'  for  the 


FIG.  136.    Spool  bobbin. 


FIG.   137. 
thread. 


Pulling   up    bobbin 


machine  being  used,  and  the  thread  is  drawn  thru  the  slits 
and  holes  in  the  bobbin  which  govern  the  tension  of  the 
lower  thread  (see  Fig.  135). 

Put  the  shuttle  into  place  and  draw  the  thread  up  over  the 
feed  plate  (Fig.  137).     The  machine  moves  the  shuttle  back- 


SEWING  MACHINES  189 

ward  and  for  ward,  and  as  this  happens,  the  needle  is  timed  to 
drop  down,  leaving  a  loop  of  thread  in  such  a  position  that  the 
bobbin  passes  thru  it.  In  rising,  the  needle  pulls  the  loop  up 
tight,  and  as  it  has  passed  thru  the  cloth,  this  cloth  comes  in 
between  the  thread  from  the  bobbin  on  the  under  side  and  the 
thread  from  the  spool  on  the  upper  side,  which  have  been  in- 
terlocked by  the  bobbin  having  passed  thru  the  loop  of  thread 
from  the  spool  as  the  needle  carried  it  down  below  the  cloth. 
This  is  called  the  lock-stitch  (Fig.  134).  The  spool  bobbins 
also  pass  thru  the  loop  left  after  the  needle  has  passed  down- 
ward. 

239.  Chain- Stitch  Machine.     In  the  chain-stitch  ma- 
chine (Fig.  138),  the  shaft  turns  a  device  which  draws  a  loop  of 
thread  thru  each  foregoing  loop,  thus  making  a  stitch  similar 
to  crocheting,  but  having  the  cloth  interlocked  with  the  stitch. 
The  needle  carries  the  thread  and  makes  it  tight  or  loose  as 
needed.    The  feed  plate  carries  the  cloth  under  the  needle. 

There  is  a  tension  to  govern  the  thread.  As  a  single  thread 
is  used  in  making  this  stitch,  no  bobbin  is  used.  The  tension 
must  be  tight  enough  to  draw  the  loop  of  thread  about  the 
cloth,  or  else  the  thread  will  tangle. 

240.  Cautions  for  All  Machines.     Machines  should  be 
kept  well  oiled,  and  they  must  be  kept  free  from  thread  and 
lint,  for  these  are  the  things  which  give  trouble  in  machines. 
Never  try  to  draw  the  cloth  under  the  needle  any  faster  than 
it  is  pushed  along  by  the  feed  plate  under  the  presser  foot. 
Pulling  on  the  cloth  bends  the  needle  from  the  exact  path 
which  it  should  follow. 

Move  the  treadle  with  a  smooth,  even  motion — a  jerky  mo- 
tion wears  out  operator  and  machine.  Use  only  the  best  sew- 


190 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


ing-machine  oil.    Poor  oil  gums  the  parts  of  the  machine. 

Clean  the  machine  every  day  it  is  in  use.    Take  care  to  set 

the  needle  in  its  proper  position,  and  fasten  it  firmly  in  place. 

241.     General  Instructions.    Thread  the  machine  ex- 


25  \ 


FIG.  138.   Chain-stitch  machine. 


1.  Cloth  Plate 

2.  Presser  Foot 

3.  Needle-Bar  Nut 

4.  Needle  Bar 

5.  Needle-Bar  Screw 

6.  Foot  Bar 

7.  Lever 

8.  Liftee 

9.  Take  Up 


10.  Embroidery  Spring 

11.  Pull  Off     ' 

12.  Spool-Pin 

13.  Spool-Pin  Holder 

14.  Automatic  Tension 

15.  Tension  Rod 

16.  Ball  Stud 

17.  Lever  Stud 

18.  Connecting  Rod 
28.     Feed  Surface 


19.  Small  Wheel 

20.  Belt 

21.  Shaft 

22.  Frame 

23.  Stitch  Regulator 

24.  Cap 

25.  Looper 

26.  Link 

27.  Feed  Bar 


actly  according  to  instructions.  If  not  properly  threaded,  it 
will  fail  to  stitch — the  thread  will  tangle.  If  the  bobbin  is 
not  properly  threaded,  it  will  not  have  the  proper  tension,  and 
the  machine  cannot  sew  as  it  should.  The  bobbin  thread  will 
break  if  it  is  not  properly  threaded  thru  the  bobbin  case.  It 
will  also  break  if  the  bobbin  tension  is  too  tight  (No.  14,  Fig. 
138). 


SEWING  MACHINES  191 

Always  regulate  the  stitch  and  the  size  of  needle  for  each 
size  and  kind  of  thread  used.  A  table  for  this  usually  comes 
with  each  machine,  or  is  often  stamped  on  the  machine.  Se- 
lect the  thread  suitable  to  the  material.  The  number  of  a 
needle  is  marked  on  the  shank.  Needles  made  for  one  kind 
of  machine  will  not  always  work  on  another. 

An  automatic  tension  should  not  be  changed  or  meddled 
with.  Some  tensions  must  be  adjusted  to  the  thread.  Follow 
directions  coming  with  the  machine  for  adjusting  tensions. 
Remove  any  thread  which  has  become  entangled  in  the  mech- 
anism of  the  machine. 

Never  use  a  bent  needle.  A  bent  needle  drops  stitches  on  a 
chain-stitch  machine.  Soaping  the  needle  helps  it  to  go  thru 
goods  difficult  to  penetrate. 

When  a  machine  runs  hard,  it  needs  oil  or  has  become  gum- 
med up  with  poor  oil.  When  gummed,  clean  with  kerosene 
oil.  Thread  or  ravelings  wound  about  the  axles  of  the  wheels 
also  makes  the  machine  run  hard.  Learn  to  use  the  attach- 
ments of  your  machine — take  care  that  they  do  not  become 
bent. 

The  lock-stitch  does  not  rip  easily. 

The  ends  of  the  thread  of  chain  stitches  should  be  carefully 
fastened.  If  started  from  the  end  where  the  seam  was  com- 
pleted, the  loop  stitch  may  be  easily  unraveled  and  thus  save 
time  when  mistakes  are  made  in  sewing  or  when  garments  are 
being  made  over. 


13 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
AUTOMOBILES 

No  lengthy  treatise  on  automobiles  can  be  given  here,  but  a 
few  facts  of  general  information  are  well  in  order. 

Each  car  has  its  special  features,  but  the  basic  principles  of 
operation  and  control  are  the  same  for  all  makes.  Let  us  con- 
sider, first,  the  control  of  the  machine  on  the  road. 

242.  Starting  the  Motor.  Open  the  throttle  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  way,  to  permit  entry  of  plenty  of  gas  into 
the  motor.  Set  the  time  control  about  as  far  down  as  the 
throttle.  Turn  on  the  ignition  switch  and  turn  the  motor 
with  the  starter. 

A  cold  motor  may  demand  use  of  the  choker  before  start- 
ing, but,  again,  too  free  use  of  the  choker  floods  the  carburetor 
with  a  rich,  non-explosive  mixture  which  can  be  removed  only 
by  use  of  the  starter.  Should  the  motor  flood  too  easily,  or 
should  it  take  too  much  choking,  have  the  carburetor  read- 
justed. Common  mistakes  in  starting  the  motor  are  (1)  too 
free  use  of  the  starter,  which  is  injurious  to  the  battery;  (2) 
starting  with  the  timer  set  too  far  down,  causing  back-fire. 
Occasionally,  a  novice  attempts  to  start  a  car  with  the  gears 
set  and  the  brakes  on.  With  the  motor  started  and  running 
smoothly,  shift  the  gears  into  low  and  take  off  the  brake.  Let 
the  clutch  back  gently  to  prevent  the  car  from  starting  with  a 
jerk.  In  shifting  gears,  the  throttle  should  be  kept  down  to 
prevent  the  motor  from  racing  upon  releasing  the  clutch.  (3) 
A  common  mistake  is  the  attempt  to  shift  gears  with  the 


AUTOMOBILES  193 

clutch  not  entirely  released.  (4)  Still  another  error  is  the  fail- 
ure to  release  the  brake  on  starting,  resulting  in  everything 
from  a  stalled  motor  to  a  stripped  gear. 

A  difficult  place  to  start  a  car  is  when  stalled  on  a  hill.  This 
is  done  by  holding  the  machine  with  the  foot  brake,  throttling 
the  motor  with  the  hand  lever,  and  slowly  releasing  brake  and 
engaging  clutch  simultaneously. 

243.  Driving  the  Automobile.  In  driving,  many  things 
should  be  observed.    The  oil  pressure  gauge  or  indicator 
should  be  noted  from  time  to  time  to  see  that  the  motor  bear- 
ings are  getting  proper  lubrication.    The  speed  of  the  motor 
should  be  such  that  the  battery  is  being  charged  rather  than 
discharged,  as  is  likewise  shown  by  an  indicator  on  the  dash. 
This  is  especially  important  when  using  lights  at  night.  Keep 
timer  lever  in  correct  place  to  prevent  overheating. 

The  general  rule  for  driving  is — keep  to  the  right  side  of  the 
road,  the  only  possible  exception  being  when  passing  a  ve- 
hicle going  in  the  same  direction;  then  go  around  on  the  left. 

Stop  before  crossing  railroad  tracks,  and  drive  slowly  when 
approaching  cross  roads.  In  turning  corners  to  the  left,  make 
the  turn  beyond  the  center  of  the  cross  road.  Do  not  use 
brakes  against  the  motor — release  the  clutch.  Do  not  use 
the  brake 'too  forcibly;  it  will  cause  injury  to  rear  tires  and 
skidding.  On  slippery  roads,  make  it  a  rule  to  use  chains 
and  drive  slowly. 

244.  Care  of  Car.     Under  this  heading,  a  few  general 
rules  may  be  given.    Do  not  persist  in  running  a  machine 
when  out  of  order.    Never  drive  when  the  lubrication  system 
is  working  imperfectly.     Lack  of  cylinder  oil  will  ruin  a  motor 
in  a  short  time.    Make  it  a  rule  to  look  at  oil  gauge  before 


194  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

starting.  Care  of  the  battery  consists  largely  in  keeping  it 
charged  and  filled  to  the  proper  level  with  distilled  water. 
Tires  should  be  kept  inflated  at  all  times.  In  case  of  trouble, 
never  run  on  a  flat  tire,  as  it  will  soon  be  worthless  under  such 
treatment.  Never  drive  a  machine  while  out  of  order — stop 
and  have  repairs  or  adjustments  made. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
LAWN  MOWERS;  INCUBATORS 

245.  Operation  and  Care  of  Lawn  Mowers.  The  wheels 
of  the  lawn  mower  permit  it  both  to  move  easily  over  the 
ground  and  turn  the  knives  which  cut  the  grass  (Fig.  139). 

This  means  that  they  must  be  kept  well  oiled  to  work 


FIG.  139.  Lawn  mower. 

easily — that  the  shaft  of  the  wheel  must  not  become  wrapped 
with  grass,  weeds,  string  or  wire.  Most  machines  are  made 
adjustable,  and  the  knives  are  set  to  allow  them  to  pass  close 
enough  to  the  plate  at  the  bottom  of  the  mower  to  clip  the 
grass  as  if  the  machine  were  a  pair  of  scissors.  Keep  the 
knives  properly  adjusted  in  relation  to  this  plate.  Do  not  let 
them  come  so  close  that  they  touch  the  plate  but  very  lightly, 
nor  be  so  uneven  that  one  end  cuts  grass,  while  the  other 
misses  the  plate  so  far  that  it  will  not  cut. 

If  the  knives  are  kept  properly  adjusted  and  the  mower  is 
not  abused  by  trying  to  cut  wires,  stones,  or  by  being  stored 
where  it  becomes  rusty,  it  will  seldom  need  sharpening. 

Keep  all  bolts  tight. 


196  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

246.  Storing  Mowers.     When  storing  for  the  winter, 
grease  the  knives  with  a  heavy  coat  of  unsalted  lard,  or  cover 
them  with  some  other  protective  material. 

247.  Scissors  and  Shears.    In  popular  language,  there 
is  no  distinction  made  between  scissors  and  shears.    Technic- 
ally defined,  scissors  are  less  than  six  inches  in  length.    Any 
similar  cutting  device  of  greater  length  is  called  shears.  Both 
are  devices  used  for  cutting  cloth,  paper,  pruning  trees,  and 
many  other  purposes.    They  consist  of  two  knives  riveted  to- 
gether at  some  point  between  the  handle  and  the  point  of  the 
blade.    The  two  blades  are  so  adjusted  that  as  the  open  scis- 
sors are  closed,  they  touch  lightly  as  they  pass  each  other  un- 
til the  tip  is  reached.  When  the  scissors  are  closed,  the  blades 
should  touch  only  at  rivet  and  tip.    Scissors  not  so  adjusted 
will  not  cut  well,  even  tho  the  blades  are  very  sharp.    Drop- 
ping scissors  often  bends  the  blades.    Blades  may  be  straight- 
ened as  well  as  sharpened,  and  thus  make  good  metal  scissors 
like  new. 

248.  Principles  Upon  Which  Incubator  Works.    A 
device  for  hatching  chickens  is  called  an  incubator.     In  order 
to  hatch  chickens,  the  incubator  must  keep  an  average  tem- 
perature of  102 \  degrees  Fahrenheit.    The  thermometer 
should  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the  tray  and  on  a  level  with 
the  top  of  the  eggs.    The  temperature  of  102 \  degrees  Fah- 
renheit must  not  vary  greatly  during  the  incubation  of  eggs. 

The  incubator  must  also  permit  of  suitable  ventilation  and 
control  of  the  moisture  in  the  eggs. 

There  are  incubators  heated  with  hot  water  and  others  with 
hot  air.  The  air  or  water  in  those  commonly  used  in  homes 
is  heated  with  a  kerosene  lamp. 


LAWN  MOWERS;  INCUBATORS  197 

The  device  consists  of  a  heating  unit,  a  regulator  or  thermo- 
stat which,  acting  upon  a  valve  or  damper,  regulates  the  ad- 
mission of  heat  into  the  insulated  box  containing  the  trays  of 
eggs,  ventilators  and  a  thermometer  (Fig.  140). 

249.     The  Body  of  the  Incubator.    The  box-like  body 


FIG.  140.   Incubator. 

of  a  good  incubator  is  set  on  strong  legs  which  raise  it  to  a 
convenient  height.  The  trays  slide  into  the  box  on  cleats 
about  two  or  three  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  body.  They 
fit  so  that  a  slit  about  two  inches  wide  is  left  between  for  the 
chickens  to  drop  down  under  the  tray  as  they  hatch.  Usually 
this  is  near  the  door.  If  the  door  is  furnished  with  a  glass  to 
admit  light,  the  chickens  are  attracted  toward  light  and  fall 
thru  the  slit. 

The  walls  of  the  incubator  are  usually  double  so  that  air  can 
be  let  in  without  making  a  draft.    Dampers  in  the  side  of  the 


198  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

machine  regulate  the  admission  of  air.  Ventilation  both  reg- 
ulates the  amount  of  air  circulating  in  the  incubator  and  the 
amount  of  moisture.  Air  from  a  damp  room  keeps  the  eggs 
moist.  Air  from  a  dry  room  dries  them. 

250.  Incubators  Heated  by  a  Lamp.    Choose  a  lamp 
which  holds  enough  oil  to  last  for  twenty-four  hours.    Good 

— — ^  lamps  are  usually  made  of  metal  and  as  plain 

-^    ^^        as  possible  (Fig.  141). 

The  burner  furnished  with  them  is  an 'ordi- 
nary lamp  burner  carrying  a  straight,  flat 
wick.  Metal  chimneys  are  used,  there  being 
enough  mica  in  one  side  to  permit  the  flame  to 
be  seen.  The  chimney  extends  into  a  metal 
chamber  containing  the  hot-water  pipes,  or 

FIG.  141.  Incu-  into  a  chamber  thru  which  air  is  taken  and 
bator  lamp.     heated  by  ^  chimney>     The  fumeg  from  the 

burning  oil  pass  out  into  the  room  and  not  into  the  incu- 
bator. The  heated  air  passes  thru  ducts  into  the  incubator. 
These  are  often  constructed  of  wood. 

251.  The  Wick.     The  wick  most  generally  found  prac- 
tical is  the  cotton  wick,  such  as  is  used  in  ordinary  lamps.    It 
should  be  kept  clean  and  renewed  often.    The  lamp  should  be 
kept  filled  regularly.    The  wick  must  always  be  kept  trimmed 
even,  to-  prevent  smoking. 

Incubators  heated  by  electricity  have  the  heating  unit 
placed  either  above  or  below  the  trays  of  eggs.  The  current 
is  controlled  by  a  thermostat. 

252.  Thermostat.     The  thermostat  also  raises  the  dam- 
per over  the  top  of  the  lamp  and  air  heater  (Fig.  142),  when 
the  incubator  reaches  the  temperature  for  which  it  is  set,  and 


LAWN  MOWERS;  INCUBATORS  199 

lowers  it  when  the  temperature  falls.  When  the  damper  is 
lifted,  the  heated  air  passes  out  into  the  room  and  not  into  the 
incubator.  As  soon  as  the  incubator  cools  below  this  tem- 
perature, the  thermostat  contracts,  letting  the  damper  drop 
in  place  to  retain  the  heat  and  direct  it  into  the  incubator. 
The  thermostat  works  the  same  when  a  gas  flame  is  used  in- 
stead of  a  lamp.  In  electrical  ma- 
chines, the  thermostat  operates  the 
switch,  admitting  much,  little  or  no 

current,   as  is   needed  to  maintain     Fl,G-  \^-  Thermostat 

for  incubator. 
102  J  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

253.  The  Thermometer.    A  thermometer  is  placed  in 
the  incubator  to  guide  the  operator  in  regulating  the  tempera- 
ture.   It  guides  him  in  adjusting  the  thermostat  and  the 
heating  device;  that  is,  it  shows  him  when  to  turn  the  wick  of 
the  lamp  up  or  down. 

Lamps  should  never  be  turned  high  enough  to  smoke. 
Smoke  and  gas  in  the  room  are  likely  to  get  into  the  incubator 
and  harm  the  growing  chicks. 

254.  Operation  of  Incubator.    Set  the  incubator  level; 
it  is  constructed  to  work  on  the  level.  Heated  air  rises — if  the 
incubator  is  not  level,  the  highest  point  will  get  most  of  the 
heat.    It  should  be  set  in  a  dry  room  or  dry  cellar,  which  is 
well  ventilated  and  well  lighted.    There  should  be  no  artifi- 
cial heat  in  the  room  which  is  not  regular.     An  uneven  tem- 
perature gives  difficulty  in  managing  the  heating  of  the  incu- 
bator.   The  room  should  be  free  from  dust. 

Adjust  the  incubator  and  run  it  for  two  or  three  days  to  see 
that  it  is  operating  at  a  constant  temperature  before  putting 
in  the  eggs. 


200  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

Use  only  the  best  grade  of  oil,  and  use  the  same  kind  of  oil 
all  thru  one  hatch.  Change  in  oil  may  necessitate  a 
change  in  regulators  which  is  not  safe  while  the  eggs  are  in  the 
incubators. 

Start  the  incubator  with  a  good,  clear,  high  flame  in  the 
lamp,  so  that  it  can  be  turned  lower  as  the  germs  in  the  eggs 
begin  to  grow  and  generate  heat. 

Start  the  incubator  at  100  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  by  the 
second  day,  it  will  reach  the  temperature  of  102  degrees. 

Violent  fluctuations  of  temperature  in  the 
incubator  are  dangerous  and  should  be  avoided. 
Accuracy  in  reading  temperatures  and  in 
adjusting  the  thermostat  and  ventilators  is 
essential.    Fill  the  lamp  and  turn  the  eggs 
regularly.   Cleanliness  is  important.   Disinfect 
the  incubator  between  hatches,  and  air  it  well. 
FIG.  143.   Egg  Cresol  soap  and  water  make  a  good  disinfect- 

4-pc+-p-p 

ant  for  incubators.  Turn  and  handle  eggs 
with  clean  hands. 

To  know  whether  the  incubator  has  the  proper  amount  of 
moisture  supplied,  weigh  the  trays  before  filling,  weigh  after 
filling.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  day,  weigh  tray  and  eggs 
again,  subtract  the  tray  weight,  which  is  constant,  from  the 
weight  of  the  whole,  and  note  the  difference  between  this 
weight  and  the  original  weight  of  the  eggs.  If  100  eggs  have 
lost  8.38  ounces,  or  4.17  per  cent  of  their  weight,  the  moisture 
is  correct. 

If  they  have  lost  too  much  weight,  give  more  moisture  or 
less  ventilation,  but,  remember,  that  pure  air  is  essential  to 
incubators,  so  do  not  shut  off  ventilation  entirely. 


LAWN  MOWERS;  INCUBATORS 


201 


If  not  enough  weight  is  lost,  open  the  ventilators,  and,  if 
necessary,  for  the  next  hatch,  place  the  incubator  in  a  drier 
place. 

255.  Egg  Tester.  An  egg  tester  is  a  device  for  looking 
thru  eggs  to  ascertain  whether  or 
not  they  are  good.  It  consists  of 
some  device  to  keep  all  bright  light 
away  from  the  eyes  except  a  few 
bright  rays  shining  thru  the  egg. 
The  hole  should  be  about  an  inch 
long  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
wide.  A  metal  chimney  with  one 
such  opening  in  the  side  used  in  a 
darkened  room  serves  as  an  egg 
tester.  A  large  piece  of  cardboard 
tacked  over  a  sunny  basement 
window  is  sometimes  used,  the  hole 
being  cut  in  the  cardboard  (Fig.  143). 

Hold  the  egg  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  before  the  opening.  Look  at  the  egg  as  the 
light  shines  thru  it.  Fig.  144  shows  how  good  and  bad  eggs 
look  when  viewed  in  egg  tester. 


FIG.  144.  Appearance  of 
eggs  when  put  in  egg 
tester. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
TYPEWRITERS 

256.  Construction  of  Typewriter.  The  typewriter  is  a 
machine  for  printing  letters  (Fig.  145).  The  letters  making 
the  imprint  are  attached  to  shafts  which  can  each  swing  to  one 
point.  Care  should  be  taken  to  strike  one  key  at  a  time,  as 


FIG.  145.   Typewriter,  L.  C.  Smith. 

they  are  all  made  to  reach  the  same  point,  and  contact  with 
each  other  may  cause  bent  shafts.  If  a  shaft  becomes  bent, 
the  letter  attached  to  it  will  not  swing  to  the  desired  point,  so 
will  be  out  of  alignment,  or  will  fail  to  leave  a  mark,  since  the 
imprint  is  made  on  a  roller  and  the  letter  hits  only  the  nearest 
part  of  the  surface.  The  shaft  may  have  one,  two  or  three 
letters  on  it.  This  is  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the  shift  key 


TYPEWRITERS  203 

which  raises  or  lowers  the  framework  to  which  the  roller  is  at- 
tached, so  that  when  the  machine  is  in  normal  position,  one 
set  of  type  on  the  keys  will  be  imprinted,  and,  upon  the  hold- 
ing down  of  a  shift  key  and  simultaneously  striking  a  letter, 
another  set  of  type  will  make  the  imprint.  On  some  type- 
writers there  are  two  shift  keys,  allowing  three  sets  of  charac- 
ters to  be  used.  The  motion  of  the  keys  turns  a  small  wheel 
which  shoves  the  roller  from  right  to  left,  and,  also,  turns  the 
spools  of  ribbons  so  that  a  new  bit  of  ribbon  comes  under  the 
letter  each  time  a  key  is  struck.  If  the  ribbon  did  not  move, 
the  letters  would  soon  cut  a  hole  thru  it.  This  ribbon  carries 
the  ink  which  reproduces  the  imprint  of  the  letter.  When  the 
end  of  a  ribbon  is  reached,  most  machines  reverse  its  direction 
so  that  it  again  winds  onto  the  spool  from  which  it  has  just 
unwound.  On  other  machines,  it  is  necessary  to  release  the 
bar  which  controls  the  spools  to  reverse  the  winding  of  the 
ribbon. 

257.  Special  Features  of  Typewriter.  Learn  how  to 
use  the  attachments  on  the  typewriter  to  get  the  greatest 
service  from  it.  If  a  machine  is  equipped  with  tabulating 
keys,  much  time  is  saved  by  using  them  for  the  indentations 
instead  of  working  the  space  bar  until  the  desired  place  is 
reached,  or  by  using  both  hands  to  release  the  carriage  and 
move  it  to  its  desired  place.  Some  machines  are  equipped 
with  a  key  marked  "ribbon"  key.  This  key,  when  pressed, 
lowers  the  ribbon  so  that  no  impression  from  it  is  made  on  the 
paper.  When  the  ribbon  is  removed,  stencils  may  be  cut 
with  the  letters  for  mimeographic  work.  These  are  only 
two  examples.  There  are  many  automatic  aids  on  each 
make  of  machine. 


204 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


258.  Interchangeable-Type  Typewriters.  On  these 
machines,  the  type  is  not  placed  at  the  end  of  a  shaft,  but  the 
complete  set  of  letters  is  put  on  a  semi-circular  plate  which  is 
attached  to  a  wheel  which  brings  the  desired  letter  to  the 
point  wanted  when  the  key  is  pressed  (Fig.  146). 


FIG.  146.    Hammond  interchangeable  typewriter. 

The  change  of  type  can  be  made  very  easily  so  that  with 
the  proper  semi-circular  plate  any  one  of  several  languages 
may  be  written  on  this  kind  of  typewriter  regardless  of  the 
characters  used  to  represent  the  letters. 

Charts  of  the  keyboard  are  furnished  with  each  set  of  let- 
ters to  guide  the  operator  in  writing.  This  machine  requires 
the  same  general  care  as  other  typewriters. 


TYPEWRITERS  205 

259.  Care  of  Typewriters. 

1)  Read  the  directions  for  cleaning  and  oiling  the  machine. 
Keep  them  for  future  reference. 

2)  Do  not  attempt  to  take  the  machine  apart.    Only  re- 
adjust parts  for  which  such  directions  are  given. 

3)  Use  only  the  best  grade  of  typewriter  oil,  and  oil  only 
where  indicated.    The  average  machine  does  not  require  oil- 
ing oftener  than  from  ten  to  fourteen  days. 

4)  Brush  the  entire  machine  each  day  before  using.    This 
prevents  the  accumulation  of  oil  and  dust,  which  retards  the 
free  action  of  the  machine,  and  rusts  or  clogs  the  bearings  and 
other  parts. 

5)  Use  a  stiff  brush  to  clean  the  type.    If  the  type  has  be- 
come gummed  with  ink  from  lack  of  care,  moisten  the  brush 
with  alcohol  or  gasoline,  and  brush  it  until  clean.    Avoid 
cleaning  the  type  with  a  sharp  instrument,  if  possible,  as  it 
mars  the  edges.    However,  in  case  of  the  letters  having  an 
enclosed  parts,  such  as  c,  d,  e,  6,  g,  p,  a,  s,  c,  q,  it  may  require 
the  careful  removal  of  the  deposit  with  a  pin.    After  this 
treatment,  the  type  should  be  well  brushed.    Keep  machine 
covered  when  not  in  use.    With  proper  care,  a  machine 
should  stay  in  good  order  indefinitely.     If,  in  any  way,  any 
part  of  a  machine  is  out  of  adjustment,  have  an  expert  read- 
just it. 

260.  The  Hectograph.    The  hectograph  is  one  of  the 
simplest  devices  for  obtaining  duplicate  copies  of  written 
work  (Fig.  147).    It  is  a  sheet  like  heavy  paper  or  pad  of 
jelly-like  substance  on  which  a  reversed  copy  of  the  writing 
can  be  made  and  from  which  copies  can  be  taken.  The  original 
copy  is  written  with  hectograph  ink  on  smooth  paper  by  hand, 


206  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

or  on  a  typewriter,  and  allowed  to  dry.  This  copy  is  placed 
face  downward  on  the  hectograph  pad,  which  has  been  moist- 
ened and  rubbed  to  insure  the  contact  at  all  places.  It  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  here  for  three  or  four  minutes.  More  time  is 
required  in  cold  weather,  as  the  absorption  of  ink  by  the  pad 
is  slower.  The  paper  is  then  removed,  leaving  a  reversed  im- 
pression on  the  hectograph  plate.  Copies  are  then  made  by 
placing  dry  paper  on  the  impression  and  removing  them  in- 
stantly. Twenty  copies  may  be  taken.  The  plate  should  be 
washed  in  lukewarm  water  immediately  after  use.  The  hec- 
tograph plate  should  be  about  the  temperature  of  an  ordinary 
room;  chilled  plates  produce  faint  prints.  Never  use  cold 

water  on  the  plate.     Keep  pen 
flowing  freely  when    writing   the 

original  copy,  by  wiping  it  fre- 
FIG.  147.   Hectograph.         quently>      Reep     ^     hectograph 

covered  when  not  in  use. 

261.  Mimeograph  and  Multigraph.  The  mimeograph 
(Fig.  148)  is  a  more  complicated  device  for  reproducing  dupli- 
cates than  the  hectograph,  but  more  copies  may  be  made  at 
faster  speed  on  this  machine  and  the  stencils  may  be  saved 
for  making  more  copies  later.  A  stencil  (tissue  paper,  usually 
blue,  fastened  to  a  sheet  of  equal  size  waxed  cardboard)  is  cut 
by  a  typewriter.  This  is  done  by  removing  the  ribbon  and 
allowing  only  the  outline  of  the  type  to  cut  thru  the  tissue 
which  has  been  saturated  with  "Dermax,"  a  liquid  wax  which 
is  brushed  over  the  surface  of  the  waxed  paper,  and  the  tissue 
paper  carefully  smoothed  out  upon  it.  Some  stencil  paper  or 
waxed  sheets  do  not  require  this  treatment  of  "Dermax";  in- 
stead a  tissue  or  silk  sheet  is  placed  under  the  stencil  pa- 


TYPEWRITERS 


207 


per.  When  the  desired  wording  is  cut,  the  cardboard  is  torn 
off  at  the  perforated  line,  leaving  the  four  holes  which  attach 
the  stencil  to  the  roller  of  the  mimeograph  machine.  First 
see  that  the  pad  on  the  machine  is  well  inked,  and  then  fasten 
the  stencil  to  the  pins  at  the  top  of  the  .roller  and  with  bar  at 
the  bottom,  seeing  that  it  is  smooth. 


FIG.  148.   Mimeograph. 

Set  the  adjustment  which  indicates  the  number  of  copies 
turned  out,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  count  them  while 
printing.  (Full  directions  are  printed  on  this  adjustment.) 
Place  the  paper  on  the  feed  board,  far  enough  down  for  the 
sheets  to  come  in  contact  with  the  rollers  which  feed  them  in, 
and  turn  the  handle.  If  the  proportion  of  space  at  top  is 
greater  or  less  than  desired,  set  the  attachment  for  regulating 
the  space.  Full  directions  are  printed  on  each  attachment  of 
most  machines.  See  that  the  ink  tank  which  is  located  inside 


208  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

the  cylinder  is  kept  full  of  the  best  ink.     Ink  the  pad  by  push- 
ing the  brush  across  the  inside  of  the  perforated  cylinder. 

Multigraphs  differ  from  mimeographs  in  that  they  print  the 
copy  from  type  instead  of  thru  a  stencil.  The  type  is  set  in  a 
cylinder  that  is  covered  by  an  inked  ribbon.  Manuscripts 
printed  by  a  multigraph  look  more  like  typewriting  than  those 
printed  by  a  mimeograph.  When  turning  out  less  than  a 
thousand  copies,  the  mimeograph  will  be  found  more  econom- 
ical on  account  of  the  small  amount  of  time  required  in  pre- 
paring the  stencil. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  IX 

1.  By  what  means  are  dumbwaiters  operated? 

2.  Can  you  see  any  relation  between  the  construction  of  door  stops 
and  force  pumps? 

3.  What  is  the  power  for  rolling  up  a  window  shade? 

4.  What  does  lock-stitch  look  like?     How  does  chain-stitch  differ 
from  lock-stitch? 

5.  In  what  way  do  lock-stitch  machines  differ  from  chain-stitch 
machines? 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  of  each?     What  are  the  disadvantages? 

7.  What  is  the  tension?     How  is  it  adjusted?     How  is  the  length  of 
stitch  adjusted?  " 

9.  In  what  ways  is  an  automobile  engine  like  the  gasoline  engine  and 
the  electric  motor  used  in  rural  homes  for  operating  household  ma- 
chinery ? 

10.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  knives  on  a  lawn  mower  that  makes  it 
cut  the  same  as  a  pair  of  scissors? 

1 1 .  What  may  be  the  reasons  for  scissors  not  cutting  as  they  should  ? 

12.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  a  good  incubator? 

13.  What  is  a  thermostat?     How  does  it  work?     Are  thermostats  of 
any  use  to  the  housewife  on  any  other  device  than  the  incubator? 

14.  What  mechanical  factors  are  embodied  in  a  typewriter?     Find 
the  pulley,  the  levers,  the  springs,  etc. 

15.  What  are  the  differences  in  a  hectograph,  a  mimeograph  and 
multigraph? 


PARTX 
MOTORS,  FUELS,  AND  GAS  PLANTS 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 
TREADLES  AND  WATER  MOTORS 

262.  Definition  of  Motor.  A  motor  is  a  device  for 
utilizing  the  power  stored  in  gasoline,  electricity  or  elevated 
water  for  doing  work.  The  structure  of  the  motor  depends 
upon  the  source  of  its  power,  as  does  its  name.  Besides  the 


FIG.  149.   Water  motor. 

motor,  there  is  a  treadle,  or  foot-power  motor,  used  in  the 
home. 

263.  The  Treadle.    The  treadle  is  a  small  platform, 
which  rocks  on  two  pivots.    As  the  treadle  is  rocked,  it  moves 
a  rod  attached  to  its  outer  edge,  upward  and  downward.  This 
rod  is  then  attached  to  a  wheel  a  short  distance  from  the  hub, 
so  that  the  upward  and  downward  motion  of  the  shaft  turns 
the  wheel.    When  a  belt  is  attached  to  the  wheel,  it  will  run 
a  sewing  machine  or  other  small  device. 

264.  Water  Motors.    Water  motors  are  commonly  used 
in  the  household  on  washing  machines  and  pumps  (Figs.  149 


210  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

and  149-a.)  At  least  twenty-five  pounds  of  water  pressure  is 
required  to  run  an  average-size  washer.  More  pressure  is  ad- 
vantageous. The  motor  may  be,  and  often  is,  attached  to 
tanks  in  which  water  is  held  under  pressure,  and  used  to 
pump  water  from  a  cistern  or  well. 

265.     Selecting  a  Water  Motor.     Before  purchasing  any 


FIG.  149-a.   "Reliable"  water  motor. 


device  to  be  operated  by  a  water  motor,  ascertain  how  much 
water  pressure  you  have  available.  Under  enough  pressure, 
the  water  from  a  faucet  will  give  power  enough  to  a  small- 
sized  water  motor  to  run  a  washing  machine,  sewing  machine 
or  small  feed  grinders.  These  motors  are  usually  less  than 
one-half  horse  power. 


TREADLES  AND  WATER  MOTORS 


211 


266.  Two  Types  of  Water  Motors.  One  type  of  water 
motor  is  made  up  of  a  piston  and  valves  in  a  cylinder  (Fig. 
150).  The  water  pushes  the  piston  to  a  certain  point  when  a 


FIG.  150.   Sectional  view  of  water  motor. 

valve  opens  and  lets  out  the  water. 
The  piston  then  moves  backward 
until  it  automatically  opens  another 
valve,  letting  in  more  water,  which, 
in  turn,  pushes  the  piston  forward 
and  again  to  the  point  where  the 
first  valve  opens.  The  motion  of 
the  piston  must  be  strong  enough 
to  do  the  work.  About  twenty-five 
pounds  of  water  pressure  is  required 
in  moving  the  piston  forward  when 
attached  to  a  machine  which  might 
be  operated  by  hand  by  a  woman. 

Another  type  of  water  motor  consists  of  cups  or  fans  on  the 
rim  of  a  wheel.  As  the  water  flows  over  the  wheel,  it  pushes 
it  around,  thus  giving  it  power  to  do  work  provided  there  is 
enough  pressure  behind  the  water  (Fig.  150-a). 


FIG.  150-a.  Water  motor 
assembled  and  in  parts. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BATTERIES;  FUELS 

267.  Gasoline  Engines.    A  gasoline  engine  (Fig.  151) 
should  be  operated  out  of  doors  or  in  a  well-ventilated  room, 
except  in  cases  where  the  exhaust  pipe  is  carried  thru  the  wall 
of  the  building  to  the  outside.    The  fumes  may  cause  illness, 
or  even  death,  to  any  one  staying  in  the  room. 

A  gasoline  engine  should  be  mounted  on  a  substantial  base 
of  concrete  or  heavy  timbers,  or  on  a  well-built  truck,  and 
should  be  put  in  good  order  before  the  woman  or  girl  begins  to 
use  it.  The  engine  must  be  level.  If  more  than  one  device 
is  attached  to  it,  be  sure  to  use  the  right  pulleys  on  the  engine 
and  the  machine  to  be  operated.  An  engine  is  usually  equip- 
ped with  pulleys  of  two  or  more  sizes.  The  size  of  the  wheel 
on  the  washing  machine  or  vacuum  cleaner  must  be  of  a  size 
to  make  the  desired  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

268.  Figuring  Speed  of  Pulleys.    For  example,  if  the 
speed  of  the  engine  is  425  revolutions  per  minute  and  the 
diameter  of  the  pulley  on  the  engine  is  12  inches,  and  the  ma- 
chine is  to  be  run  at  150  revolutions  per  minute,  have  a  pulley 
on  the  machine  of  a  diameter  which  equals  425  times  12,  or 
5,100  divided  by  150,  or  34  inches. 

It  would  be  more  convenient  to  have  a  smaller  pulley  on  this 
machine.  Since  there  is  a  smaller  wheel  on  the  engine  which, 
we  will  say,  is  6  inches  in  diameter,  put  the  belt  on  the  smaller 
wheel,  and  then  a  wheel  only  17  inches  in  diameter  will  be 
needed  on  the  machine. 


ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BATTERIES;  FUELS        213 


EXHAUST   VALVE. 
SPRING  WASHER 


EXHAUST  VALVE:  LEVER 
VALVE,  ROD  CONNECTOR 


*-  ION ITOR  TRIP  ROLLER 
F-  1GNITOR  TRIP  CLAMP 


SIGHT    FEED 
LUBRICATOR 


FlG.  151.   Sectional  view  of  gasoline  engine. 


214  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

269.  Operating  the  Engine.     One  person  should  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  care  of  an  engine.    Starting  the  engine  is 
usually  too  heavy  work  for  most  women.  Since  a  man  usually 
starts  a  gas  engine  which  the  women  are  to  use,  it  is  more  im- 
portant that  they  know  how  to  stop  the  engine  and  to  recog- 
nize when  it  is  not  running  properly.    A  cold  engine  can  be 
started  easier  if  warmed  with  hot  water. 

Running  an  engine  which  is  out  of  order  may  damage  it  se- 
riously. Have  some  one  show  you  how  to  operate  your  en- 
gine. Stop  it  when  not  running  properly. 

270.  Points  in  Caring  for  Engine.     The  following  are 
points  to  keep  in  mind  when  operating  an  internal  combus- 
tion engine: 

1)  Black  smoke  issuing  from  the  exhaust  pipe  means  there 
is  not  enough  air  in  proportion  to  fuel. 

2)  When  an  engine  misses  more  explosions  than  it  should, 
or  backfires,  the  cause  is  likely  to  be  too  much  air  in  the  fuel. 

3)  If  the  mixture  of  fuel  and  air  is  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion, but  there  is  too  little  of  it,  the  engine  will  have  no  power. 

4)  Premature  ignition  may  be  caused  by  deposition  of  car- 
bon or  soot  on  the  walls  of  the  cylinder;  the  compression 
being  too  high  for  the  fuel  used ;  overheating  of  the  piston,  or 
exhaust  valve,  or  of  some  poorly-jacketed  part. 

5)  Using  too  much  or  a  poor  quality  of  lubricating  oil,  or  a 
mixture  too  rich  in  fuel,  causes  deposition  of  carbon  on  the 
cylinder. 

6)  The  use  of  too  much  cylinder  oil  is  indicated  by  a  blue 
smoke  issuing  from  the  exhaust. 

7)  Pre-ignition,  or  a  bearing  out  of  order,  or  the  engine  not 
being  securely  fastened  to  its  foundation,  causes  pounding. 


ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BATTERIES;  FUELS        215 

8)  Too  much  water  in  the  oil  used  for  fuel  causes  white 
smoke  to  issue  from  the  exhaust  pipe.    This  may  be  caused 
by  a  leaky  jacket  on  gasoline  engines. 

9)  Stop  the  engine  by  shutting  off  the  supply  of  fuel.  Open 
the  switch  to  the  ignition  system.    Close  the  lubricators  and 
oil  cups,  and  turn  off  the  jacket  water. 

10)  In  cold  weather,  drain  off  the  jacket  water  to  prevent 
freezing. 

11)  Always  leave  the  engine  clean  and  in  order  to  start 
again. 

12)  For  safety,  belts  and  wheels  should  be  boxed  in  wher- 
ever possible. 

Fig.  151  should  be  studied  closely  for  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  engine. 

271.  Generating  Electricity  for  Homes.     Water  mo- 
tors, kerosene,  gas  and  gasoline  engines  are  the  sources  of 
power  commonly  used  to  generate  electricity  for  private 
homes.    A  device  for  generating  electricity  is  called  a  dyna- 
mo (Fig.  152).    The  electricity  generated  is  either  used  di- 
rectly while  the  engine  is  running,  or  it  is  stored  in  storage 
batteries.  From  here  it  is  conducted  thru  wires  and  used  for 
lighting,  heating  and  turning  motors  to  do  work. 

272.  Batteries.     Batteries  are   used   mainly   where  a 
small  amount  of  current  is  needed,  as  on  oil  or  gasoline  en- 
gines, to  make  the  spark  to  ignite  the  gasoline  or  oil,  and  in 
lighting  gas  and  acetylene  lamps,  and  for  some  door  bells. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  batteries,  as  liquid,  dry-cell  and 
storage. 

273.  Liquid  Batteries.     In  liquid  batteries,  electric  cur- 
rent is  generated  by  means  of  direct  chemical  action  between 


216 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


an  acid  and  two  other  substances,  one  more  easily  attacked  by 
the  acid  than  the  other  (Fig.  153),  such  as  zinc  and  copper. 
This  forms  a  simple  cell,  one  form  of  primary  battery.  When 
the  chemicals  and  metals  in  a  primary  battery  are  exhausted, 
they  can  be  replaced  with  new  metal  or  solution. 
274.  A  Dry-Cell  Battery.  A  dry-cell  is  another  form  of 


FIG.  152.    Electric  generator. 

battery.  In  these,  the  moisture  of  the  acid  substance  is  ab- 
sorbed by  some  material  like  plaster-of  -Paris  flour  or  blotting 
paper,  so  that  it  can  act  on  the  metals  or  carbon  in  the  cell  and 
still  make  a  cell  easily  transportable.  The  absorbed  moisture 
in  dry  cells  slowly  evaporates,  and  then  they  become  worth- 
less. These  batteries  are  usually  thrown  away  after  they 
have  been  used  and  have  ceased  to  generate  electricity. 

275.     Storage  Batteries.    Storage  batteries  differ  from 
primary  batteries  in  that  current  must  be  supplied  to  them 


ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BATTERIES;  FUELS         217 


from  some  outside  source,  such  as  a  dynamo.  They  can  be 
recharged  again  after  the  current  in  them  has  been  used 
(Fig.  154). 

The  engines  for  private  homes  where  a  light  plant  is  used 
are  adjusted  to  charge  batteries  at  the  proper  rate — but  the 


FIG.  153.   Primary  battery. 


FIG.  154.   Storage  battery. 


owner  should  charge  these  batteries  at  regular  intervals. 
They  can  be  charged  only  by  direct  current. 

Never  allow  the  storage  battery  to  run  down  to  a  voltage 
lower  than  1.15  per  cell.  This  reading  is  taken  from  the  volt- 
meter supplied  with  the  plant. 

Storage  batteries  should  be  tested  by  a  hydrometer  for  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  or  liquids  in  them.  In- 
structions for  this  and  for  correcting  the  specific  gravity  ac- 
company the  plant.  Take  care  to  preserve  them. 

Dynamos  for  home  use  are  almost  automatic.  Run  the 
dynamo  to  renew  the  batteries  when  using  electric  irons  or 
other  devices  calling  for  more  current  than  the  lighting  fix- 
tures. Each  plant  is  designed  to  carry  a  certain  load  of 
equipment.  Exceeding  this,  damages  the  plant. 

Place  electric  motors  and  dynamos  in  a  dry,  cool,  clean 
place. 


218  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

276.  Some  Uses  for  Electric  Motors.    Motors  are  now 
used  on  sewing  machines,  washing  machines,  dish  washers, 
vacuum  cleaners,  wringers,  fans,  refrigerating  systems,  pumps, 
grinders,  freezers,  churns  and  separators.    They  are  made 
either  for  direct  or  alternating  current.    When  purchasing  a 
motor,  be  sure  to  designate  the  type  of  current  with  which  it  is 
to  be  used.    Select  motors  of  the  right  size  to  operate  the  ma- 
chine.    It  costs  more  to  operate  a  large  motor  on  a  small  de- 
vice than  a  small  motor. 

277.  Definition  Tables.    A  British  thermal  unit  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  warm  one  pound  of  water  one  de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

The  flash  point  of  an  oil  is  that  temperature  at  which  it  will 
form  an  inflammable  vapor.  The  accompanying  table  shows 
amount  of  heat  generated  from  a  number  of  sources. 

The  t9tal  heat  in  a  gallon  of  kerosene  is  greater  than  that  in 
a  gallon  of  gasoline  because  the  kerosene  is  heavier  than  the 
gasoline.  A  gallon  of  gasoline  will  give  on  an  average  but 
about  five-sixths  as  much  total  heat  as  a  gallon  of  kerosene. 
This  is  approximately  true,  whether  the  heaviest  grades  of 
kerosene  are  compared  with  the  heaviest  grades  of  gasoline,  or 
the  lightest  grade  of  kerosene  is  compared  with  the  lightest 
grade  of  gasoline. 

Distillate  is  the  refuse  left  from  the  distillation  of  petro- 
leum. 

The  flash  point  of  kerosene  may  be  between  70  and  150  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  depending  upon  the  grade.  For  illumin- 
ating purposes,  do  not  use  kerosene  with  the  flash  point  lower 
than  120  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  flash  point  of  gasoline  is  10  to  20  degrees  Fahrenheit; 


ENGINES;  MOTORS  AND  BATTERIES;  FUELS          219 


that  is,  gasoline  will  form  an  imflammable  vapor  at  tempera- 
tures as  low  as  this. 

Between  60  and  70  per  cent  of  the  common  fuels  are  utilized 
in  the  generation  of  steam  for  heating  purposes. 

TABLE  SHOWING  GENERATION  OF  HEAT 


AMOUNT 

FUEL 

B.  T.  U. 

lib. 

Anthracite  coal 

13,200-13,900 

lib. 

Bituminous  coal 

12,000-15,000 

lib. 

Lignite  coal 

8,500-11,400 

lib. 

Wood 

8,200-  9,200 

1  cu.  ft. 

Natural  gas 

900-  1,000 

1  cu.  ft. 

Illuminating  gas 

500-      600 

lib. 

Kerosene 

18,000 

lib. 

Alcohol 

12,000 

lib. 

Gasoline 

19,000 

1  K.W.-hr. 

Electricity 

3,400 

*One  pound  ice  in  being  melted  will  absorb  144  B.  T.  U 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
GAS  PLANTS 

278.  Gasoline- Gas  Plants .  Gasoline-gas  plants  are  de- 
vices for  generating  gas  from  gasoline.  The  gas  is  a  mixture 
of  air  and  gasoline  vapor.  It  is  made  by  air  being  forced  thru 
gasoline.  There  are  small  plants  which  can  be  installed  in 


FIG,  155.   Gasoline  gas  plant. 

private  homes  (Fig.  155).  Gasoline  vaporizes  at  ordinary 
temperature.  The  vapor  or  gas  produced  can  be  used  for 
heating,  lighting  and  running  gas  engines. 

One  gallon  of  gasoline,  when  entirely  vaporized,  produces 
about  thirty-two  cubic  feet  of  gas.  Its  heating  power  de- 
pends upon  the  character  of  the  gasoline  utilized  and  the  tem- 
perature at  which  it  is  kept  during  vaporization. 

The  plant  is  a  device  for  forcing  air  thru  the  gasoline  to 
make  it  vaporize  as  fast  as  wanted.  Combined  with  the  ca- 
buretor  is  a  storage  tank  for  the  gas.  A  weight,  or  water 
motor,  furnishes  the  power  most  commonly  used  in  forcing  the 


GAS  PLANTS  221 

air  thru  the  gasoline  and  forms  a  part  of  the  plant.  Air  cannot 
flow  thru  the  gasoline  when  the  storage  tank  is  full  of  gas  so 
that  the  power  is  only  in  operation  when  the  gas  is  being  used 
or  the  tank  is  not  quite  full. 

279.    Acetylene-Gas  Plant.    Acetylene  is  often  used  in 
rural  homes  when  gas  or  electricity  are  not  available.    The 


FIG.  156.  Acetylene  gas  plant. 

operation  of  the  plant  often  has  to  be  attended  to  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family.    A  capable  woman  can  do  this,  but  she  must 
be  careful  and  must  thoroly  understand  the  plant  (Fig.  156). 
The  materials  used  in  making  acetylene  are  calcium  carbide 
and  water.    Calcium  carbide  (A,  Fig.  156)  is  made  from  lime 


222  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

and  coke  fused  together  in  an  electrical  furnace.  It  must  be 
kept  stored  in  a  dry  place. 

The  plants  for  making  acetylene  are  inexpensive  enough  to 
be  installed  in  individual  homes  of  moderate  means.  Calcium 
carbide  for  making  the  gas  can  be  transported  without  diffi- 
culty. 

There  are  two  types  of  machines.  In  one  the  water  drips 
on  the  carbide;  in  the  other,  the  more  common  type,  the  car- 
bide is  dropped  into  the  water.  As  soon  as  the  carbide 
touches  the  water,  it  gives  off  acetylene  gas.  The  gas  is 
caught  in  and  fills  a  bell  above  the  water.  As  it  fills  the  bell, 
it  raises  it,  and  when  the  bell  reaches  a  certain  height,  it  trips 
a  lever  to  the  door  which  lets  in  the  carbide  and  closes  it. 
When  the  gas  is  used,  the  bell  goes  down  and,  passing  the 
lever,  opens  the  door  to  let  in  a  small  amount  of  carbide. 

Improvements  have  been  made  in  the  plants  and  in  install- 
ing them  until  there  is  less  danger  from  explosions  than  for- 
merly. Great  care  should  be  taken  in  operating  them  to 
avoid  accidents.  Since  the  gas  is  highly  explosive,  fire, 
lighted  lamps  and  cigars  must  be  kept  away  from  the  vicinity 
of  all  acetylene  plants.  Only  one  person  should  take  the  care 
of  the  plant,  tho  others  should  understand  how. 

280.  Directions  for  Operating  Acetylene  Plant. 

1)  Charge  by  daylight — remove  all  residuum,  and  fill  with 
fresh  water  before  adding  any  carbide. 

2)  Follow  exact  directions  for  the  machine  used  in  the  order 
directed. 

281.  Cautions  to  Be  Observed  in  Using  Acetylene  Gas. 
1)  Do  not  apply  a  light  to  any  opening  that  is  not  equipped 

with  a  regular  acetylene  burner  tip. 


GAS  PLANTS  223 

2)  See  that  any  workman  repairing  a  generator  first  re- 
moves carbide  and  drains  all  water  out,  and  disconnects  it 
from  piping  and  removes  it  to  the  open  air,  where  he  then  fills 
all  compartments  with  water  to  force  out  gas  before  using 
soldering  irons. 

3)  An  open  light  should  never  be  permitted  nearer  than  ten 
feet  from  the  generator.    The  generator  should  never  be 
nearer  than  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  from  furnace  or  stove.     Do 
not  hunt  for  gas  leaks  with  a  flame  or  light. 

4)  Do  not  use  any  artificial  light  except 
electric  light  when  cleaning  or  repairing  gener- 
ator, or  carry  a  lighted  pipe  or  other  fire 
about  it,  even  when  empty. 

5)  If  water  in  any  chamber  should  freeze,  do 

not  attempt  to  thaw  it  with  anything  but  hot      sure  tank  for 
water.  gas' 

6)  Keep  the  motor  oiled.    Oil  once  in  six  months. 

282.  Compressed  Gases  and  Oils.  Gases,  such  as  Blau 
gas,  Pintsch  gas,  and  prestolite  gas  which  is  compressed  ace- 
tylene gas,  are  compressed  in  strong  tanks  and  sold  for  use  in 
lighting  and  light  housekeeping.  Gasoline  and  alcohol  also 
are  occasionally  stored  in  very  strong  tanks  under  enough 
pressure  to  make  them  flow  thru  very  small  pipes  to  the  point 
where  they  are  wanted  for  use.  These  are  frequently  used 
for  lighting  isolated  public  buildings,  such  as  rural  school- 
houses. 

As  the  gas  or  oil  is  used,  the  pressure  diminishes.  There  is 
usually  a  pump  attached  to  the  tank  to  pump  in  air  in  order 
to  keep  up  the  pressure.  The  pump  is  similar  to  a  bicycle 

pump  (Fig.  157). 
15 


224  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

QUESTIONS  FOR  PART  X 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  treadle  and  a  motor-power 
machine? 

2.  How  is  power  secured  from  water  in  a  water  motor?     Or  what  is 
the  source  of  power  utilized  by  a  water  motor? 

3.  How  do  you  determine  the  size  of  pulleys  to  use  on  the  gasoline 
engine  and  on  the  device  it  is  to  operate? 

4.  What  are  some  indications  that  a  gasoline  engine  or  automobile 
motor  is  not  running  properly? 

5.  What  are  the  kinds  of  batteries,  and  to  what  uses  is  each  best 
suited? 

6.  Do  batteries  need  care?     If  so,  what  care? 

7.  How  is  acetylene  gas  made?     Describe  the  device  for  making  it. 

8.  How  is  gas  for  household  use  made  from  gasoline? 


PART  XI 
MEASURING  DEVICES 

CHAPTER  XL 
SCALES  FOR  WEIGHING 

283.  Equal- Arm  Balances.     Scales  are  devices  for  de- 
termining the  weight  of  objects.    Balances — one  form  of 
scales — are  made  of  two  arms  of  equal  lengths  and  supplied 
with  discs  of  metal  of  a  known  weight  to  be  placed  on  one  arm 
of  the  balance  while  the  material  to  be  weighed  is  put  on  the 
other.     When  the  two  arms  are  in  equilibrium,  the  weight  of 
the  material  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  metal.    Since  the 
weight  of  the  metal  is  known,  or  can  be  determined,  by  adding 
together  the  weights  of  the  discs  used,  the  weight  of  the  mate- 
rial is  known  to  be  the  same. 

284.  Unequal- Arm  Balances.     Equal-arm  balances  are 
not  convenient  for  weighing  large  objects.     For  this  reason, 
scales  are  made  with  one  arm  of  the  balance  much  longer  than 
the  other.    The  metal  discs  are  then  marked  with  the  weight 
of  the  material  on  the  short  arm  which  they  can  balance 
when  placed  on  the  long  arm.    This  is  the  usual  form  of 
counter  and  household  balances.     On  these  scales  is  also  a 
weight  which  slides  along  the  arm  and  is  used  to  determine 
weights  smaller  than  five  or  ten  pounds.    The  arm  of  the  bal- 
ance is,  therefore,  marked  at  the  point  where  this  weight  will 
balance  certain  amounts  of  material,  such  as  half  ounces, 
ounces  and  pounds. 


226  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

285.  Spring  Scales.  Spring  scales  depend  on  the  action 
of  a  spring,  to  which  an  indicating  pointer  is  attached.  When 
there  is  no  weight  on  the  spring,  the  place  to  which  the  indi- 
cator points  is  marked  zero.  When  these  scales  are  manu- 
factured, a  pound  weight  is  placed  so  that  it  pulls  on  the 
spring  and  the  indicator  is  pulled  down  to  another  place,  and 
this  is  marked  one.  Scales  are  thus  marked  for  the  number 
of  pounds  they  are  to  weigh.  The  spaces  between  the  pounds 
marked  are  divided  into  equaL  divisions,  such  as  sixteenths 
which  indicates  ounces.  These  scales  cannot  be  relied  on  for 
accuracy,  for  springs  stretch  or  become  weaker  as  they  are 
used.  Avoirdupois  is  the  weight  in  common  use  for  market- 
ing, while  many  tables  for  calculating  dietaries  are  in  the 
metric  system. 

The  housewife  can  have  her  balances  corrected  for  weighing 
by  the  city  or  county  sealer  of  weights  and  measures  so  that 
she  can  ascertain  whether  or  not  her  food  purchases  are  cor- 
rectly weighed. 

TABLE  OF  WEIGHTS 

AVOIRDUPOIS  METRIC 

16  oz. — 1  pound  1  milligram — 1/1000'    .001  gram 

100  lb.— 1  hundred-weight  1  centigram— 1/100     .01  gram 

2000  Ibs.— 1  ton  1  decigram— 1/10     .1  gram 

0.035  oz.— 1  gram  (Metric  Gram — 1  gram 

system)  Dekagram — 10  grams 
Hectogram— 100  grams 

APOTHECARIES  Kilogram — 1000  grams 
27-11/32  grams— 1  dram 
16  drams — 1  oz. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
DEVICES  FOR  MEASURING  VOLUME 

286.  Graduate  and  Measuring  Cup.     Graduate  hold- 
ing up  to  four  fluid  ounces  is  helpful  to  use  to  check  up  liquids 
bought  in  bottles.    The  standard  measuring  cup  referred  to 
in  modern  cook  books  holds  half  a  pint  of  liquid.    It  also 
holds  about  sixteen  level  tablespoonfuls  of  dry  material  such 
as  sugar.    The  divisions  on  glass  cups  are  less  likely  to  be  ac- 
curate than  on  metal  ones,  as  the  bottom  may  be  thick  or  thin 
unless  carefully  made.  In  selecting  a  cup,  see  that  the  bottom 
section  is  equal  to  the  other  sections. 

1  cup  =  2  gills  =  1/2  pint  =  16  tablespoons  = 

48  teaspoons  =  8  fluid  ounces. 
1  cup  is  also  1/4  of  a  quart  and  about  4/17  of  a 

liter. 

287.  Tablespoons.     Tablespoons  vary  in  size.    The  size 
chosen  for  measuring  is  the  one  in  most  common  use  and 
holds  about  three  level  teaspoonfuls  of  material  like  sugar  or 
flour. 

1  tablespoon  =  4  drams  of  liquid  =  3  teaspoons. 
4  tablespoons  =  1/4  cup  =  2  fluid  ounces. 

288.  Teaspoons.     Teaspoons  vary  in  size,  but  the  spoon 
in  common  use  is  the  one  understood  as  the  measure  in  cook- 
ery.   It  holds  about  one  and  one-third  fluid  drams. 

289.  Standard  Measuring  Spoons.    Standard  meas- 
uring spoons  in  sets  can  be  purchased  at  a  very  moderate 


228  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

price.    They  are  particularly  valuable  for  checking  the  capac- 
ity of  the  spoons  more  commonly  used. 

290.  Liquid  and  Cooking  Measures. 

1  teaspoonful=  1-1/3  fluid  drams 

3  teaspoonfuls=  1  tablespoonful=  4  drams 

2  tablespoonfuls=  1  fluid  ounce 
1/2  cup=l  gill 

2  gills  =  1  cupful  =  8  fluid  ounces 
16  tablespoonfuls=  1  cupful 
2  cupfuls=  1  pint 
2  pints  =1  quart  =4  cupfuls 

4  quarts  =1  gallon 
4.23  cupfuls=  1  liter 

1000  cubic  centimeters  =  1  liter 

1.06  liquid  quarts=  liter 

31-1/2  gallons=  1  barrel 

1  milliliter=  one-thousandth  (.001)  liter 

1  centiliter  =  one-hundredth  (.01)  liter 

1  deciliter  =  one-tenth  (.1)  liter 

Liter  =  1  liter 

1  dekaliter=ten  (10)  liters 

1  hectoliter=  one  hundred  (100)  liters 

1  kiloliter=l  thousand  (1000)  liters 

291 .  Dry  Measures .     It  is  wise  for  a  housewife  to  have  a 
set  of  dry  measures,  consisting  of  a  pint,  quart,  gallon,  peck 
and  half -bushel  measure.    A  quart  or  gallon  liquid  measure 
is  not  equal  to  the  dry  one.     It  holds  less.    The  diameter  of 
dry  measures  should  be  as  follows: 

DIAMETERS  OF  DRY  MEASURES 

MEASURE  *DIAMETER 

1  pint  4  inches 

1  quart  5-3/8  inches 

2  quarts  6-5/8  inches 
1/2  peck  8-1/2  inches 
1  peck  10-7/8  inches 
1  bushel  13-3/4  inches 

*These  diameters  allow  for  proper  heaping. 


DEVICES  FOR  MEASURING  VOLUME  229 

*DRY   MEASURE 

2  pints=  1  quart 

8  quarts =  1  peck 
4  pecks  =1  bushel 

1  sack  of  flour=  24-1/2,  49  or  98  pounds 
4  49-pound  sacks  of  flour=  1  barrel 
1  barrel  of  flour=  usually  196  pounds 
60  pounds  of  potatoes=  usually  1  bushel 

*State  laws  differ  somewhat  regarding  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel  of  various 
fruits  and  vegetables. 

292.     Cubic,  Square  and  Linear  Measure. 

CUBIC  MEASURE 

1728  cubic  inches=  1  cubic  foot 
27  cubic  feet=  1  cubic  yard 
128  cubic  feet=  1  cord 

SQUARE  MEASURE 

144  square  inches=  1  square  foot 

9  square  feet=  1  square  yard 
30-1/4  square  yards=  1  square  rod 
160  square  rods=  1  acre 

640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

LINEAR  MEASURE 

12  inches=l  foot 
3  feet=  1  yard 
5280  feet=  1  mile 
39.27  inches=  1  meter 

METRIC  MEASURES 

Millimeter  =  one-thousandth  (.001)  meter 
Centimeter  =  one-hundredth  (.01)  meter 
Decimeter  =  one-tenth  (.1)  meter 
Unitemeter=  1  meter 
Dekameter=ten  (10)  meters 
Hectometer=one  hundred  (100)  meters 
Kilometer=  1  thousand  (1000)  meters 


CHAPTER  XLII 
GAS,  WATER,  AND  ELECTRIC  METERS 

293.  Different  Kinds  of  Meters.    The  housewife  has 
need  to  be  familiar  with  three  kinds  of  meters — water,  gas  and 
electric.    These  are  devices  for  measuring  water,  gas  or  elec- 
tric current. 

294.  Construction  of  a  Gas  Meter.    The  interior  of 
one  type  of  gas  meter  (Fig.  158)  is  somewhat  like  a  water 


FIG.  158.   Gas  meter. 

wheel — the  pressure  of  the  gas  pushes  the  wheel  around. 
Every  time  a  compartment  full  of  gas  passes  a  certain  point, 
the  gas  flows  out  and  the  flange  on  the  wheel  trips  a  lever 
which  moves  the  hand  of  the  dial  ahead,  thus  counting  the 
emptying  of  the  compartment.  The  gas  in  the  compartment 
back  of  this  then  moves  to  this  place.  The  emptied  compart- 
ment is  filled  with  more  gas  as  it  passes  the  inlet. 

295.  Reading  the  Gas  Meter.  A  gas  meter  is  a  device 
for  measuring  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  which  flows 
thru  a  pipe.  Small  dials  with  the  numbers  from  one  to  ten 
and  a  hand  for  an  indicator  show  the  number  of  single  feet, 
tens  of  feet,  and  thousands  of  feet,  which  have  passed  thru 


GAS,  WATER,  AND  ELECTRIC  METERS 


231 


the  meter.    The  reading  on  any  date  is  the  total  amount  of 

gas  which  has  passed  thru.    To  tell  how  much  has  passed 

thru  the  meter  during  any  period  of  time,  take  the  reading  of 

the  meter  on  the  first  date,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  158,  and  then 

take  the  reading  on  the  later  date  and  subtract  reading  one 

from  reading  two — the  resulting  figure  is  the  amount  of  gas 

passing  thru  the  meter  between 

these  two  dates.  When  buying 

gas,  always  keep  the  readings  of 

meters  at  the  time  when  the  gas 

man  takes   them.    Gas  meters 

often  register  more  or  less  gas 

than  is  actually  consumed.     Gas 

companies  are  allowed  a  variation 

or  tolerance  of  one  per  cent  fast 

or  slow,  to  two  per  cent  fast  or 

slow.     Gas  is  paid  for  at  a  stated 

rate  per  thousand  feet  in  most 

places. 

296.  Water  Meters.     The  water  meter  (Fig.  159)  is  a  de- 
vice for  measuring  the  number  of  gallons  or  cubic  feet  of 
water  which  pass  thru  a  pipe.    The  reading  of  the  meter  in- 
dicates the  total  amount  of  water  which  has  passed  thru  the 
pipe  since  the  meter  was  installed.    Water  is  paid  for,  unless 
purchased  at  a  flat  rate,  at  so  many  cents  a  thousand  gallons 
or  thousand  cubic  feet.    One  cubic  foot  is  called  in  commer- 
cial transactions  7-1/2  gallons. 

297.  Prepayment  Meters.    Prepayment  meters  are  de- 
vices which  will  permit  a  certain  amount  of  gas  or  water,  as 
the  case  may  be,  to  pass  thru  a  pipe,  and  after  this  amount  is 


FIG.  159.   Water  meter. 


232 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


FIG.  160.   Electric  meter. 


used  up,  the  pipe  is  automatically  closed  so  that  no  more 
flows  until  more  money  is  put  into  the  meter.  The  weight  of 
the  coin  works  the  valve. 

298.     The  Electric  Meter.     Electricity  is  usually  pur- 
chased by  the  kilowatt  hour,  and  measured  by  the  watt-hour 

meter  (Fig.  160).  This 
measures  the  current  pass- 
ing thru  it,  and  the  number 
of  kilowatt-hours  is  shown 
by  the  indicators  on  the 
little  dials.  Start  from  left 
and  read  the  number  on 
the  dial,  such  as  in  the  illustration,  3  hundreds  4  tens  9  units, 
making  349  kilowatt-hours;  the  total  kilowatt-hours  used 
since  the  meter  was  in- 
stalled. To  find  the  num- 
ber used  between  two  dates, 
take  the  reading  of  the 
meter  on  the  first  date  and 
subtract  it  from  the  reading 
on  the  second  date.  The 
difference  is  the  amount 
used  during  the  period.  .  Good  business  women  keep  records 
of  the  readings  of  their  meters.  Care  must  be  taken  to  read 
the  meter  correctly.  The  hand  next  higher  than  the  one 
below  may  read  too  high.  The  higher  hand  may,  if  out  of 
alignment,  pass  the  figure  when  the  lower  hand  approaches 
the  ninth  point  in  its  dial,  this  causing  the  person  to  read  the 
figures  one,  ten,  hundred  or  thousand  units  too  much. 
(Fig.  160-a.) 


FIG.  160-a.   Electric  meter  showing 
different  readings. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
THERMOMETERS  AND  THERMOSTATS 

299.  Mercury  Thermometers.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  thermometers  in  use — the  Fahrenheit  and  the  Centigrade. 
Since  the  thermometer  is  used  now  in  cooking,  the  housewife 
often  has  to  meet  the  problem  of  translating  temperatures 
from  one  to  the  other. 

The  centigrade  thermometer  is  marked  on  the  assumption 
that  the  temperatures  of  boiling  water  and  freezing  water  are 
constantly  the  same.  The  boiling  point  is  marked  100,  and 
the  freezing  point  0.  The  space  in  between  is  marked  into 
even  divisions  and  numbered  1  to  99. 

The  Fahrenheit  thermometer  was  made  on  the  assumption 
that  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  was  the  coldest  temperature 
that  could  be  reached,  so  this  temperature  of  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  ice  and  salt  was  marked  zero. 

The  hundred  point  was  given  to  what  was  supposed  to  be 
the  normal  body  temperature.  The  intervening  spaces  were 
marked  into  equal  divisions,  and  these  divisions  were  carried 
below  0  degree  and  above  100  degrees.  The  boiling  tempe- 
rature of  water  came  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the 
freezing  point  at  32  degrees.  This  makes  180  degrees  differ- 
ence between  thawing  and  freezing  and  boiling.  So  100  de- 
grees Centigrade  equal  180  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Therefore, 
1  degree  Centigrade  equals  9/5  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  1  de- 
gree Fahrenheit  equals  5/9  degree  Centigrade. 


234 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


For  example,  if  40  degrees  Centigrade  is  to  be  translated 
into  Fahrenheit  degrees,  first  multiply  40  by  9  =  360,  then 
divide  by  5  =  72,  and  add  32,  because  0  degree  Centigrade  is 
the  same  as  32  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the  result  is  104  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  equal  40  degrees  Centigrade.  If  41  degrees 
Fahrenheit  is  to  be  translated  into  Centi- 
grade degrees,  first  substract  32  from  41  = 
9,  then  multiply  by  5  =  45,  and  divide  by 
9,  and  the  result  is  5  degrees  Centigrade  =  41 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  Fig.  161  is  a  diagram 
showing  relative  readings  of  Fahrenheit  and 
Centigrade  thermometers. 


c. 

12O- 
113- 
llO- 
103- 
100- 


30 

A3 

4O 
33 

30 

£5 

20 — 

13 

(O 

o  — 

-3 

-10 
-15 
-20 
-25 


FAH. 

— 2J7 

—  24-8 

—  E39 

—  230 

— aai 

—  212 


66 

77 

68 

59 

3D 

41 

32 

14 
5 

-4 


300.  Oven  Thermometer.  Some  oven 
thermometers  depend  on  the  expansion  of 
metal  to  indicate  the  temperature.  A  hand 
on  the  clock-like  face  of  these  indicators 
shows  the  degree  of  heat.  Few  of  these  give 
the  actual  temperature,  but  they  do  indicate 
a  slow,  a  moderate  and  a  hot  oven. 


FIG.  161.  Com-      301.     Maximum    Thermometers.     A 

parison  of  Cen-  .  ,  .  ,  .  ,      . 

ti  grade  and  maximum  thermometer  is  one  in  which  the 

Fahrenheit.  mercury  rises  to  register  the  maximum 
amount  of  heat  to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  It  stays  at 
this  height  when  the  temperature  falls,  until  it  is  shaken 
back. 

It  is  sometimes  used  in  ovens  to  ascertain  the  temperature 
they  have  reached  before  the  oven  door  is  opened. 


THERMOMETERS  AND  THERMOSTATS 


235 


TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURES  USEFUL  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS 

OVEN  TEMPERATURES 


FAH. 

CENT. 

Slow  oven 

250-350 

121-177 

Moderate     '.  

350-400 

177-204 

Hot  or  quick                                    

400-450 

207-232 

Vf>rv  hot 

450-550 

232-287 

SYRUPS 


FAH. 

CENT. 

Thin             

219- 

104- 

Medium  —  fondant           

236-240 

113-115 

Thick  —  fudge 

-240 

115- 

Heavy  —  taffy.                .  .  '.  

-300 

149- 

Clear  brittle 

-310 

150- 

Carmel  almond  and  nut  brittle  

-315 

157- 

MISCELLANEOUS 


FAH. 

CENT. 

Incubators 

103 

39  4 

Body  temperature  
Room  temperature 

98-99 

-86 

37 
20-30 

Refrigerator  temperature  

44-59 

5-15 

Churning  
Growth  of  bacteria  retarded      

52-62 
35-70 

11-17 

Growth  of  bacteria  most  rapid  

70-100 

Most  bacteria  are  killed  

212 

Downward,  markedly.  Growth  of  bacteria 
retarded  

45 

302.  Thermostats.  Thermostats  are  devices  which 
open  or  close  valves  or  dampers  in  order  to  keep  rooms,  boil- 
ers, ovens,  incubators,  etc.,  at  an  even  temperature.  All 
metals  expand  on  being  heated,  and  contract  on  being  cooled. 


236  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

Some  expand  more  than  others.  Two  materials  which  ex- 
pand at  different  rates  are  frequently  used  in  making  ther- 
mostats. Any  certain  temperature  causes  a  given  piece  of 
metal  to  expand  to  a  certain  size,  or  to  contract  on  cooling  to  a 
different  size.  Some  thermostats  are  made  of  a  straight  rod 
of  metal  like  copper  which  expands  more  than  iron  when 
heated.  The  rod  is  so  placed  that  when  cool  it  will  allow  fuel 
like  gas  or  oil  to  pass  thru  a  pipe,  and  when  heated,  it  will 
expand  enough  to  close  the  pipe,  shutting  off  the  fuel.  They 
are  placed  so  that  they  close  the  pipe  at  the  temperature  de- 
sired for  an  oven  or  supply  of  hot  water. 

Other  thermostats  are  more  complicated,  as  the  expanding 
metal  moves  a  series  of  levers.  These  thermostats  are  used 
to  regulate  dampers  on  coal  and  wood  furnaces,  when  they  are 
placed  in  the  rooms  to  be  heated.  They  are  often  used  on 
other  devices,  such  as  incubators. 

Still  others  control  an  electric  current.  When  the  metal 
expands,  it  closes  the  circuit,  causing  the  electricity  to  do  the 
work  desired.  When  it  contracts,  it  opens  the  circuit.  Ther- 
mostats can  be  set  to  do  work  at  different  temperatures. 

These  are  sometimes  attached  to  clocks  which,  with  a  de- 
vice similar  to  the  alarm,  will  change  the  indicator  of  the 
thermostat  so  as  to  set  it  from  one  temperature  to  another  at 
a  stated  time  for  which  the  clock  is  set  and  turn  it  back  at 
another  hour. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
HYDROMETERS  AND  BAROMETERS 

303.  Hydrometer.  A  hydrometer  is  used  in  gaging  the 
density  of  liquid.  This  instrument  consists  of  a  closed  glass 
tube  which  is  enlarged  at  the  lower  end  and  filled  with  some 
heavy  material  like  mercury  or  shot,  to  keep  it  in  an  upright 
position  when  in  liquids. 

The  tube  or  stem  contains  a  paper  on  which  divisions  called 
degrees  are  marked .  The  0  mark  is  usually  the  point  reached 
by  the  surface  of  distilled  water  when  the  hydrometer  is 
placed  in  this  liquid.  The  less  the  density  of  the  liquid,  the 
lower  the  hydrometer  sinks,  for  it  displaces  an  amount  of 
liquid  equal  to  its  own  weight.  The  density  of  the  liquid 
then  can  be  determined  by  observing  the  mark  to  which  it 
sinks.  Specific-gravity  hydrometers  used  in  the  household 
show  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  a  given  volume  of  liquid  to  the 
weight  of  the  same  volume  of  water  at  a  definite  temperature. 
Arbitrary  scale  hydrometers  are  used  to  indicate  the  concen- 
tration or  strength  of  syrup,  brines  or  milk.  These  are  de- 
fined as  lactometers  and  Baume  hydrometers.  A  brine  hy- 
drometer is  called  a  saltometer,  and  a  syrup  gage  a  sac- 
chrometer.  A  jellometer,  especially  for  making  jelly,  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  a  sacchrometer.  The  scale  on  this 
tells  how  much  sugar  to  use  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
solids  in  the  fruit  juice  without  having  to  refer  to  a  table. 
Some  hydrometers  are  constant- volume  hydrometers,  and  on 
these  weights  are  placed  always,  to  sink  the  hydrometer  to 
the  same  depth  in  the  liquid. 


238 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 


TABLES  FOR  BRIX  AND  BALLING  HYDROMETERS  WHEN 
USED  AT  20°  C.* 


READING  ON  THE 
HYDROMETER 
Degrees 

SUGAR  TO  A  QUART  OF  FRUIT  JUICE  TO  MAKE 
JELLY 

Pounds 

Ounces 

5. 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 
7.0 
7.5 
8.0 
8.5 
9.0 
9.5 
10.0 

8. 
9. 
9.6 
10.7 
11.6 
12.4 
13.2 
14,1 
15.0 
15.8 
7.0 

1. 

*When  the  reading  for  the  fruit  juice  is  determined  the  table  shows  how  much  sugar  is 
used  for  juice  of  that  specific  gravity. 

TABLE  SHOWING  AMOUNT  OF  SUGAR  PER  GALLON 


READING  ON  THE 
HYDROMETER 
Degrees 

SUGAR  TO  A  GALLON  OF  WATER 

Pounds 

Ounces 

0. 

0.0 

5. 

7.0 

10. 

14.8 

15. 

1. 

7.5 

20. 

1. 

14.75 

25. 

2. 

12.5 

30. 

3. 

9.0 

35. 

4. 

7.75 

40. 

5. 

8.75 

45. 

6. 

13.00 

50. 

8. 

5.25 

55. 

10. 

4.00 

60. 

12. 

8.0 

HYDROMETERS  AND  BAROMETERS  239 

In  the  second  table  the  readings  show  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  syrup,  and  from  that  may  be  ascertained  the  propor- 
tion of  sugar  to  a  gallon  of  water  in  it. 

A  250  cc.  cylinder,  or  other  tall  vessel  deep  enough  to  float 
the  sacchrometer,  is  suitable  for  making  the  measurements. 
Be  sure  to  have  the  eye  on  the  level  of  the  liquid  when  making 
the  readings.  If  no  sugar  is  in  the  water,  the  reading  on  the 
hydrometer  will  be  near  zero.  If  there  is  sugar  in  the  propor- 
tion of  seven  ounces  to  a  gallon  of  water,  the  reading  will  be  at 
the  line  marked  5. 

SYRUPS  FOR  CANNING 

Berries  — 30  degrees,  or  3^  pounds  of  sugar  to  1  gallon  of  water 

Sweet  cherries — 30  degrees 

Sour  cherries  — 40  degrees 

Peaches  — 30. to  40  degrees 

Pears  — 20  to  30  degrees 

Plums  • — 40  degrees 

304.  Hygroscopes.  Hygroscopes  are  devices  for  meas- 
uring humidity.  Forty-five  to  sixty  per  cent 
humidity  is  desirable  in  a  house.  This  means 
forty-five  to  sixty  per  cent  as  much  water  as 
the  air  is  capable  of  taking  up  at  room  tem- 
perature. Cold  air  is  usually  dryer  than 
warmer  air  because  cold  air  cannot  take  up  as 
much  humidity  as  warm  air.  This  is  analo- 


gous to  the  fact  that  warm  water  will  dissolve     FIG.  162.    Ba- 
more  of  some  salts  or  of  sugar  than  cold  water.  er' 

305.  Barometers.  Barometers  (Fig.  162)  are  devices 
which  show  changes  in  pressure  and  currents  of  air.  Changes 
in  the  barometer  usually  indicate  changes  in  the  weather,  and 

16 


240  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  IN  THE  HOME 

thus  they  are  of  interest  to  all  persons.  A  decided  fall  in  the 
mercury  of  a  barometer  usually  precedes  foul  weather,  while  a 
rise  indicates  the  approach  of  fair  weather.  When  the  pres- 
sure is  low  in  any  locality,  air  begins  to  rush  toward  that 
point  as  it  would  to  fill  a  vacuum.  So  a  fall  in  the  barometer 
precedes  the  coming  of  a  high  wind  or  a  rainstorm.  A  rise  in 
the  barometer  precedes  a  calm,  and  since  most  rain  is  accom- 
panied with  wind,  the  calm  is  a  time  of  fair  weather. 


INDEX 


Page 

A 

Absorption  of  heat  and  light 

84,  85, 108 
Acetylene   - 

30,49,81,91,92,145,221,222,223 

Acids 155,156,157,159,216 

Acre 229 

Adjustment  of  burners,  stove 

^24, 29, 30, 32, 34, 41, 49, 78, 79, 80 
Air,  for  circulation 

57,76,101,102,103,111,198 

dead  or  stagnant 63, 102 

for  combustion 

16,29,31,38,39,48,66,88, 
93,214 
for  evaporation 

105,176,220,221 
for  heating 
19,55,60,61,62,63,73,75,79 

in  radiator 67,  68,  70 

mixer. .  23,  24,  25,  33,  77,  96, 144 

moisture 239 

for  pressure 
97,112,113,114,175,176,184 

shaft 57 

whistling 56 

Alcohol 47,  48,  89,  96,  97,  98 

145,223 

Alkalies 155,157 

Alternating  current 110 

Aluminum 

78,156,157,158,171,172 

Ammonia 108, 138 

Ampere 82 

Andiron 74 

Anthracite  coal 219 

Asbestos .32,  66,  77,  81 

Ash  chute 22 

Ashes 20,  57,  66,  74,  75,  76 

Automobile 192 


Back-fire 

Bacteria 

Balances 

Balling  hydrometer 

Barometer 

Barrel 

Basin,  catch 

Battery....  192, 193, 


192,214 

.100, 101, 127 

225 

238 

239,240 

.167,228,229 

127 

194,215,216 


Page 

Baume  hydrometer 237 

Bearing 152 

Beater 165 

Bell  for  storing  gases 222 

Bellows 148,149 

Belts 136,137,141,186,215 

Bituminous  coal 219 

Blau  gas 223 

Bobbin 187, 188,  189 

Boiler 

64,69,71,73,132,133,156 

Booster 119 

Bracket,  curtain 185 

Brine  for  cooling 108 

British  thermal  unit 218,219 

Brix  hydrometer 238 

Broiler 26 

Brush 147, 149, 150, 152 

Bunsen  burner 77,  78,  81 

Burner .  .  48,  96, 119, 141, 145,  198 

gas 

23,  25,  27,  29,  77,  78,  88,  91,  144 

kerosene 

32,33,36,37,40,80,94 

Burning  back 27,  89,  90,  91 

Burr  grinder 162 

Bushel 228,  229 


Calcium  carbide  .  .  .  221,  222,  223 

Candle  power 84,  89,  91,  95 

Canned  heat 43 

Canner 172, 173 

Can  sealer 175 

Capillary  attraction 

47,48,93,106 

Carbolic  acid 126 

Carbon 82,83,84,214 

Carbon  dioxide 67, 108 

Carburetor 29,  192,  220 

Carpet  sweeper 147,  148,  150 

Cast  aluminum 156 

Cast  iron. 155,156 

Catch  basin 127 

Centigrade  thermometer. 233,  234 

Centigram 226 

Centimeter 228,  229 

Centiliter ; '  228 

Centrifugal  dryer .  .  .  138,  139,  140 

force 139 

washer 135,136 


242 


INDEX 


Page 

Cerium 88 

Cesspool 124 

Charcoal  filter 114 

Chain  stitch 186 

Cherry  stoner 161, 162 

Check  valve 71,183 

Chimney 

18,  31,  33,  57,  59,  74,  75,  80,  93 
94,111 

Chloride  of  lime 126 

Choker 192 

Chopper 162,163 

Churns 165,167,235 

Cistern 114 

Clamp 138 

Cleaning 25,35,127,172 

Cleaning  equipment 

147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153 

Clinkers 76 

Clock 236 

Clutch 192 

Coal 20,28,66,76 

Coffee  mill 162 

pot 167,168 

Cog  wheels 165 

Coils 64,78,80 

Coke 222 

Cold-process  gasoline-gas 

29,91,145 

Color  and  illumination 84 

Compressed-air  pump 

113,115,117 
Combustion 

16,17,23,24,58,66,74,76,77 
Conductivity  of  materials 

156,157,158 

Contraction  of  materials 235 

Cookers 50,  51,  55,  56 

Coolers 105,106,108,109 

Copper 158,216,236 

Crank 163 

Cream  separator 178, 179 

Cubic  measure 229 

Cup,  measuring 227,  228 

Current,  electric 

42,  46,  80,  83,  86,  110,  143, 
144,  215,  218,  232 

Curtain  roller 185 

Cylinder 112,113,211 

washer 133 


Page 

D 

Dampers 

16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  22,  58,  61,  66 
74,  75,  197,  198,  235,  236 
Decomposition  of  sewage 

124, 125, 127 

Degree.  .  .  .  ! 233,234 

Dekagram 226 

Dekaliter 228 

Dekameter 229 

Dermax 206 

Density  of  liquids 237 

Direct  current 110 

Direct  lighting 85 

Dish-washer 170, 171 

Disinfectant 126,  200 

Distillate 40,218 

Dolly  washer 134 

Doors 103, 183, 184, 185,  215 

Drafts 

16,17,18,19,57,58,59,74 

Drain 103,104,122,138 

Dram 226,228 

Drip  pipe 102,103 

Drip  sheet 25 

Dryer 171,176 

Dry-cleaning  equipment 140 

Dry-cell  battery 215,216 

Dulling  of  edges 159, 163 

Dumbwaiters 183 

Dust 76,78,80,148,150 

Dynamo 215,216 


Earthenware 107, 156 

Egg  tester 201 

Electric  appliances 

42,44,46,81 

heating 42,43,80,119 

measurements .  .  43,  82, 230, 232 

Electric  motors 217 

Electricity 215,  219 

Electrolyte 217 

Enameled  ware 157 

Engine,  gasoline 137, 212 

Evaporation ....  67, 105, 106, 140 

Exhaust  pipe 212,  214 

Expansion  of  materials 

108,234,235 

tank 66,67,120 

valve 70 


INDEX 


243 


Page 

Explosions,  prevented 

25,35,37,39,69 

utilized 192,214,222 

Extractor..  139 


Fahrenheit  thermometer. 233,  234 

Fan 110,148,177 

Fastener,  door 184 

Faucet.  109, 114, 116, 119, 120, 122 

Feed  plate 187, 188, 189, 207 

Filament  for  lamp 83 

Filter,  water 114, 116, 168 

Fire 18,19,34,41,66,75 

Fireless  cooker 50,  51 

Fireplace 74,75 

Fire-pot 20,  57,  58,  65,  76 

Flame 23,35,38 

Flame,  blue 31.38, 49,  96 

illuminating .  77, 78, 88, 89, 93, 94 

Flashpoint 218 

Flat-iron 142 

Float  for  flushing  tank . . .  129, 130 

Flue 66, 77 

Force  pump 113, 117, 119 

Freezer 166,167 

Freezing. ...  68, 112, 126, 166,  233 

Friction,  danger  from 140 

Fuel 16,58,65,76,88,119 

economical  use  of 

19,20,28,59,66 

Funnel 133,167,168 

Furnace 57,  62,  63,  64,  75,  222 

Fuses 43,46,86,144 


Gage 67,69,70,73,117 

Gage,  steam 72, 173 

Gallon 228 

Gas 

26,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  40,  58,  88 

108,  192,  199,  214,  215,  219 

221,230 

burners 77,  79,  90, 144 

consumption 23,  28,  29,  66 

formation 96,  97,  98 

kinds  of 

29,91,220,222,223 
Gasoline 

89,97,99,140,219,223 


Page 

Gasoline 

burner 37,96 

engine 119,137,212,215 

Gasoline-gas 29,37,91,220 

Gears 192 

Generation  of  heat  and  gas 

219,220 

Generator 96,  97, 145,  223 

Gill 227,228 

Glass  utensils 156, 157, 158 

Graduate 227 

Gram 226 

Granite  ware 156, 157 

Grate 16,58,65,74,76 

Grater 160 

Gravity  lamp 96 

Gravity,  specific 217,237,239 

Grinder 159,162 


Heat 29,48,89,156, 

production  of 

42, 140, 143, 

use  of 

45,50,57,69,78,80,140, 
Heater 

65,  77,  79,  80,  81,  118, 
141,143, 

Hectograph 

Hectoliter 

Hectometer 

Hinge 

Homogenizer 

Horse  power 

Hot-water  furnace 

Hot-water  tank 

Humidity 

Hundred- weight 

Hydrometer.. .  .217,237, 
Hygroscope 


158,218 
200,219 
143,176 

119,  135 
196,197 
205,206 
..  ..228 
..  ..229 
184, 185 
....180 
..  ..210 

64 

..  ..117 
.  ..239 
..  ..226 
238,239 
..239 


Ice .  100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 166, 219 

Iceless  refrigerator 105, 106 

Incubator 196,  201,  235 

adjustment  of 199 

Ignition  of  gas 140,  214,  215 

Illumination 
28,  77,  78,  82,  84,  85,  88,  218,  219 

Inch 228,229 

Ink 205,208 

Insulation .  19, 46, 50, 55, 57, 66, 102 


244 


INDEX 


Page 

Iron 155,156,158,236 

Ironing  board 144 

Irons 142,144,145,146 


Lock-stitch . 
Lubrication 


Page 

.186, 188 
193 


Jars,  fruit 

Jellometer 

Jugs 


.176 
.237 
.107 


Kerosene  lamps .... 

oil 

stoves 

Kisselguhr  filter  .  .  . 

Keyboard 

Kilogram 

Kiloliter 

Kilometer 

Kilowatt 

Kneading  machine . 

Knives 

Knocking,  cause  of 


93,95 

.  .28,138,219 
.  .  ..31,79,80 

114 

202,204 

226 

228 

229 

82,232 

165 

.159,163,196 
71,214 


.163 


Lard  press 

Lamp,  adjusting  burners 

89,  90,  93,  94 

electric 82,83,84,87 

gas  or  oil 

91,92,94,95,96,196,198,199,215 

Laundry  tubs 127 

Lawn  mower 195 

Lava  tip 89 

Leather,  preventing  shrinking  of 

112 

Lever 72,  154,  163, 190,236 

Light 83,84,85,86,98 

Lights 82,88,98 

Lighters 28,91,215 

Lighting,  lamps 89,  90,  94,  95 

stoves 
25,  27,  33,  34,  37,  38,  78,  79,  80 

Lighting  plants 86, 114 

Lime 221 

Lining  refrigerator 101 

Lignite  coal 219 

Liquify,  sewage 124, 125 

Liquids 237 

Liter 227,  228 

Locomotive  washer 135 

Logs,  gas 78 


M 

Mangles 141 

Mantles  for  lamps 

88,89,90,91,95,98 

Manufactured  gas 78,  89,  91 

Maximum  thermometers 234 

Mazda  lamps 82,  83,  84 

Measurements 225 

Melting  ice 103 

Metal,  conductivity  of ...  156, 158 

Meter 229,230,231,232 

Microbes,  septic 126 

Mile 229 

Millimeter 226 

Milliliter 228 

Milligram.  .  . 226 

Mimeograph 206 

Mixer 165 

Moisture 200,  239 

Mop  wringer 154 

Motor 

108,110,133,150,186,192,209 

care  of 214,217 

water. . .  .  137, 209, 210, 211, 220 

Mower 196 

Multigraph 206,  208 

N 

Natural  gas 30,89,219 

Needle 187,188,191 

Nickel 158 

Nozzle 148, 149 


Oil.  .31,  93, 110,  200,  214,  218,  223 

Oil  cups 33,35 

Oscillating  washer 134, 135 

Ounce 226,228 

Oven 19,20,26,27,42,235 

Overflow..  .  .67, 119,  120,  122,  130 


Packing 112, 122 

Pans 155,156 

Parers 159,160 

Peck 228,229 

Percolator 168 

Pet  cock 174,175 

Pilot  light 26,27,119 


INDEX 


245 


Page 

Pint 227,228,229 

Pintsch  gas 223 

Pipe,  stove 58,  60,  61,  62, 

water  or  steam  64,  66,  69,  70,  72 

Pipes 67,78,102,103 

Pipeless  furnace 63 

Piston 112,  148,  211,  214 

Pivot 166,167,209 

Plate,  mower 195 

Plug,  electric 143, 144 

Plumber's  pump 123 

Plumbing  system 115, 117 

Pneumatic  hinge 184 

lamp 96 

Porcelain  filter 114 

Pots 155, 156, 167,168 

Pound 72,226 

Power 82,  209,  210,  214 

Prepayment  meter 231 

Press 163 

Pressure 

72,  73,  78,  79,  82,  117,  137,  138 

146,164,171,173,209,223 

Pressure,  air 96,  97, 176 

gage 69,117 

Prestolite  gas 223 

Pulley 137,185,212 

Pump 

108, 112,  113,  117,  123,  148,  168 
169,  209,  223 

Q 

Quart ..227,228 


Rack  for  canner 172 

Radiation  of  heat.  .  .57,  61,  62,  79 

Radiator 64,  68,  69,  70,  71 

Radiator,  gas 77,  78,  79 

Reading  meters. 231,  232,  238, 239 

Reflector 77,  78,  80,  81 

Refrigerating  plant 108 

Refrigeration,  principles  of.  .  .100 
Refrigerator 

100,101,102,103,104,105 

Register ' 60,62,75 

Regulation,  heat  and  pressure 

20,  60,  66,  70,  72,  73 
Regulation  of  stoves.  24,  43,  44,  48 
Regulator,  temperature.  .198, 199 

Reservoir 18 

Resistance  produces  heat ....  143 


Page 

Revolutions  of  motor  wheels .  .  137 

Ribbon,  typewriter 203,208 

Roller 138, 141, 142, 154, 162 

Rotary  washer 134 

S 

Saccrometer 237, 239 

Sack,  flour 229 

Sadirons 142 

Safety  devices 45,  56,  71 

Safety  valve 

72,79,117,119,174,175 

Salt 157,166 

Saltometer 237 

Scales 226 

Scissors 196 

Screw 163 

Seal  for  sewer  pipe 128 

Seeder 159,161 

Semi-indirect  light 86 

Separators,  cream 178 

Septic  tank 124,  125, 127 

Sewage 124,  125,126 

Sewer 124,  127,128 

Sewing  machine .  .  .  .186,  191,209 
Shaft. .  159, 186,  187,  202,  204,  209 

cold-air 57,  60,  63 

Shears 196 

Sheet  iron 155,156 

Shutter,  furnace  pipe 60 

Shuttle,  sewing  machine 188 

Silicon 158 

Silver 158,171 

Simmerer 30 

Siphon 125, 129 

Slicer 159,163 

Smoke 

16,20,32,34,36,  57,59,66,73 
74,80,89,146,214,215,246 

Socket,  electrical 143 

Soot. .  17,  20,  32,  39,  66,  75,  78,  214 

Sparks,  electric 110, 144 

Specific  gravity. .  .  .  .217,  237,239 

heat 156,158 

Speed  by  use  of  wheels  .  .  .  165,  212 

Spiral 163 

Spoons 157,  158,227,228 

Spring 59,  184,185,226 

pulley 183 

Steam ...  71,  79,  111,  133, 175,  219 

pressure 

69,  70,  72,  73,  174,  175 


246 


INDEX 


Page 

Steam 

cooker 56 

valves  and  gages .  70,  72,  73, 173 

Steel  for  cooking 155 

Stencil 206 

Stitch 187,188,189,191 

Stones,  fireless  cooker 50,  54 

Stoner 161 

Storage  tank 113,  220 

Storage  battery 215,216,217 

Stove 

37,47,48,49,57,58,63,65,70 

electric 42,44,157 

gas 23  to  30, 144 

heating 75,76,78,80,141 

Stove,  wood  and  coal 15,  22 

Stoves,  care  of 

31,34,41,44,76,78 

Stuffer 163,164 

Suction  pump 112, 113 

washer 132,133,169 

Sweeper,  carpet 147, 148, 150 

Switch,  ignition 192 

Syrup,  temperatures  of 235 


Tables 

85,  158,  219,  226,  227,  228,  229 
235,238 

Tablespoons. 227,  228 

Tank 

30,  31,  35,  37,  39,  40,  64,  67,  96, 
146,220,223 

septic 124,125,126,127 

water 

107, 109, 113, 117, 119, 128, 129 
130 

Teaspoon 227,228 

Temperature 

20,  51,  73,  101,  103,  105,  173,  196 
198,200,206,220,233,236 

Tempering  of  metal 156 

Tension 187,188,189 

Tester,  egg 201 

Thawing 233 

Thermal  unit 218 

Thermometer. .  .  197, 199, 233,  234 
Thermostat 

197,198,199,200,235,236 

Thorium 88 

Thread 187,188 

Throttle..  192 


Page 

Thumb-screw 138,  174 

Time  for  cooking  food 54 

Timer 193 

Tin 155,156,158 

Ton 226 

Trap 122,128 

Trays 176, 197, 200 

Treadle 186,209 

Tungsten 82,  83, 158 

Type 203,204,208 

Typewriter 202, 203, 206 

U 
Utensils  for  cooking..  .44, 155, 156 


Vacuum 112, 176,  240 

cleaner 147, 148 

Valve 

25,  26,  29,  33,  37,  52,  68,  69,  70 

71,  72,  90,  112, 113, 119, 120, 122 

129, 130, 145, 174, 183, 197,  211 

232,235 

Vapor 40,41,145 

Vent,  radiator 68 

Ventilators.110,  111,  197, 198,  200 

Volt 82 

Voltage 86,110,144,217 

W 

Warping 76 

Washboard ,  .  134 

Wash  boiler 172 

Washers  for  valves,  etc 120 

Washing  equipment,  care  of 

136,138,139,141,142 
Washing  machines 

132,133,135,136,209 

Waste 76,124 

Water 67,102,106 

closets 128 

coolers 105,108 

filters.  .' 114 

for  cooling 107, 215 

for  furnaces 

64,  66,  67,  68,  70,  71,  72,  81 

heater 118,119 

meter 230 

motors 

137,  209,  210,  211,  220 

tanks 119 

-bath  canner 173 

-seal  canner 173 


INDEX  247 

Page  Page 

Watt 82,  84      Wire 43,  46, 110 

Weight 220,226      Wood 157,219 

Wells 113, 125      Wringer,  clothes 138 

Wheels 137,165,211,230          mop 154 

Whey  separator 180 

Whistle 56  Y 

Wick. . .  .32,  35,  93,  94,  95,  98, 198      Yard 229 

Wickless  burner 32,  33 

Window,  adjustment  of ...  63, 183  z 

shades .  .  184      Zero 233 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Acetylene  burner .  . 

gas  plant 

Adjusting  gas  light. 

Air  mixer 

Alcohol  iron 

Ash  chute .  . 


Page 

.  .90 

221 

89 

.  ..24,77 

145 

21 

Automatic  devices  for  heating 

water 118 

tension 190 

B 

Balance  wheel 186 

Ball  bearings 152 

Barometer 239 

Bath-tub  overflow 122 

Battery 217 

Blower 110 

Bobbin  shuttle 188 

spool 188 

thread 188 

winder 186 

worm  wheel 186 

Boiler,  washer  for. 132 

Booster 120 

Bread  mixer 165 

Brush,  electric  cleaner 151 

carpet  sweeper 153 

Bunsen  burner * 89 

Burner,  acetylene 90 

Bunsen , 89 

cleaning 26 

gasoline 37,38 

gasoline-gas 29 

oil  stove 31,34 


Cam 213 

Canner,  pressure 173 

water-bath 172 

Can  sealer 175 

Cap,  sewing  machine 190 

Carpet  sweeper 152, 153 

Centigrade  thermometer 234 

Centrifugal  washer 136 

Chambers'  fireless  cooker  range .  54 

Check  valve  for  door 184 

Cherry  stoner 160 

Chimneys,  lamp 93 

Circulation  in  refrigerator. . .  .  102 
Cleaner,vacuum.  147, 150, 151, 152 


Page 

Clean-out  for  cook  stove 15 

Cloth  plate,  sewing  machine. .  190 

Compressed-air  pump 114 

Cooker,  gas 54 

steam 55 

Cooking  stove 15, 25 

Cooler  for  food 106, 108 

Crankshaft 213 

Cream  separator 179, 180 

Curtain  roller 185 

Cylinder  washer 134 


Dampers 15, 17 

Direct  light 83 

Discs  in  separator . 180 

Dish  dryer 172 

•  washer 170, 171 

Door  holder 184 

check  valve 184 

Draft 17 

Dryer 139,176 

£ 

Egg  tester 200 

Egg,  appearance  when  tested. .  201 

Electric  fan Ill 

generator 216 

heater 80 

heating  unit 43 

iron „ 143 

lighter 91 

meter 232 

plug 144 

stove 42,80 

vacuum  cleaner 150, 151 

Embroidery  spring 190 

Engine,  gasoline 213 

Expansion  tank 67 

Exhaust  valve 213 

F 

Fahrenheit  thermometer 234 

Fan 110,111 

Faucet  showing  parts 122 

Feed  bar,  sewing  machine. . .  .  190 

pipe 31,32,33 

Fireless  cooker 51,  53 

Flames,  clear  and  smoky 35 

Flushing  tank 130 

Flywheel 213 


INDEX 


249 


Page 

Force  pump 113, 119 

Fruit  press 164 

Fuel  box 21 

Furnace,  Garland  hot-water 

64,  65,  67 

pipeless 61 

steam 69,73 

warm-air 58,  59 

Fuse  on  electric  heating  unit ...  43 


Gage,  water 70 

Gas,  acetylene  plant 221 

air  mixer  for 24,  77 

burner 23 

cooker 54 

heater 77,78 

iron 145 

light 89 

logs 79 

meter 230 

oven 27 

radiator 79 

stove 25,77,78 

tank 223 

Gasoline  burner 37 

engine 313 

-gas  lamp 97 

-gas  plant ' 220 

-stove 38 

Generator 216 

Governor 213 

Grate 16,21 

Grinder 160,161,162 


Heater,  electric 80 

gas 77,78 

hot-air 62 

hot-water .65 

oil 80 

reflector 78 

water 118,120,121 

Heating  unit 45 

for  electric  stove 43 

Hectograph 206 

Holder,  door 184 

Hinge,  door 185 

Humidifier .  .  .  .  58 


Iceless  refrigerator 105 


Page 

Ignitor 213 

Incubator 197 

lamps 196 

Indirect  light 86 

Instantaneous  water  heater  .  .  118 

Insulation  in  cooker 51 

Iron,  alcohol 155 

electric 143 

gas .  .145 


K 


Kerosene  lamp . 

oil  heater 
Knives,  mower . 


.94 
.80 
195 


Lamp.  . 35,  93 

electric 83 

gasoline 97 

incubator 196 

mantle  for 94 

Lard  press 164 

Lawn  mower 195 

Lifter  for  fireless  cooker  stones .  53 

Light,  adjusting  gas 89 

direct 83 

indirect 86 

pilot 27 

semi-indirect 87 

Lighter,  gas  stove 28 

electric 91 

Lining  of  fire  box 21 

Lock-stitch  machine 186 

Locomotive  washer 135 

Logs,  gas 79 

Looper,  sewing  machine 190 


Mangle 141, 142 

Mantle  lamp 88,  94 

Meters 230,231,232 

Mimeograph  machine 207 

Mixer,  bread  and  cake. . .  165, 166 

Mop  wringer ,  ....  154 

Motor,  water 209,210,211 

Mower,  lawn 195 

N 

Needle  bar 186, 190 

clamp 186 

Nozzles 152 


250 


INDEX 


Page 

o 

Oil  heater 80 

stove 32 

burner 31,32 

lighting 34 

Oscillating  washer 135 

Oven  burner,  gas .29 

Overflow..  ..123 


Pail  for  cooking  food 107 

Parer 159 

Pet  cock 173 

Pilot  light 27 

Pipes,  hot-water 65 

steam 69 

Piston 213 

Plant,  acetylene-gas 221 

gasoline-gas 220 

Plug,  electric 144 

Pneumatic  gasoline  lamp 97 

Press,  lard  and  fruit 164 

Presser  foot,  sewing  machine 

186, 190 

Pressure  canners 173 

thumb-screw  for 186 

tank 223 

Pump,  compressed-air 114 

force.. 113,119 

plumber's 122 

suction 113 

Pulley  wheel 213 

Pulley,  window 183 


Rack  for  canner 173 

Radiator 65,68,79 

valve 122 

vents 68 

Reflector  gas  heater 78 

Refrigerator 100 

circulation  of  air  in 102 

iceless 105 

Roller,  mangle 142 

wringer 133,134,  135 

Rotary  washer 134 

S 

Safety  valve 69 

Sealer,  fruit-can 175 

Semi-indirect  light 87 

Separator,  disc 180 


Page 

Separator 

DeLaval 181 

Sharpless 179 

Septic  tank 124, 125, 126 

Sewing  machine,  chain-stitch.  190 

bobbin 188 

lock-stitch 186 

under  part 187 

shaft , 213 

Shaft,  crank 213 

Shaker,  stove 21,  64 

Shuttle 187,188 

Siphon 126 

Slicer 163 

Spool  holder 186,190 

forbpbbin 188 

Spring  in  curtain  roller 185 

Steam  cooker 55 

furnace 69,73 

Stoner 160 

Stones,  fireless  cooker 51,  53 

Storage  battery 217 

Stove,  coal 15 

electric 42,43,80 

gas 24,25,26,27,77,78 

gasoline 37,38 

grate 21 

heating 62,77,78,80 

oil 31,32,33,34,80 

pipe 17 

shaker 21,64 

ventilator '.Ill 

wood 15 

Suction  pump 113 

washer 133 

Sweeper,  carpet 1 53 


Tank 65,121 

cooling 108 

expansion 67 

flushing 130 

gas 223 

septic 124,125,126 

Tension,  sewing  machine 

186,187,190 

Thermometer,  Fahrenheit 234 

Centigrade 234 

Thermostat 199 

Thread,  bobbin 188 

cutter 186 

guide 186 


INDEX 


251 


Page 

Thread 

take-up 186,  190 

Traps 129 

Tray  for  dishes 172 

Typewriter,  Hammond 204 

L.  C.  Smith 202 

U 

Universal  grinder 162 

Utensils  for  electric  stove 45 

for  fireless  cooker 51,  53 


Vacuum  cleaner.147, 150, 151, 152 

nozzles 152 

Valve,  cooker 51 

door  check 184 

safety 69 

radiator 122 

Vegetable  slicer 163 

Vents 68,122 

Ventilator..  ..Ill 


Page 

W 

Washer,  centrifugal 136, 139 

cylinder 134 

for  boiler 132 

locomotive , 135 

oscillating .  135 

rotary 134 

suction 133 

Water-bath  canner 172 

Water  closet 129 

cooler 109 

heater. 120 

meter 231 

motor 209,210,211 

tank 121 

for  cooling 107 

Wheel 186,190 

Wick 36 

Window  pulley 183 

Wringer,  centrifugal 139 

mop 154 

roller 133,134,135 


W.  B.   O. 


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DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

•MnO.  DJSC. 

DFC?.ol938 

/•norm  A"no!° 

GmvWt 

MAY  12  1994 

i 

.  . 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
FORM  NO.  DD6  BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


V' 


YC   18586 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


CDDb731t?b 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


573690 

rxm 

....        A  5 


